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Modern Day Slavery in India
For many, the end of slavery was the day the Emancipation Proclamation was announced by Abraham Lincoln, but now over a hundred years later slavery is still occurring.
Today, there are around 31,000,000 slaves in the world who are relying on hope. India, the home to around half the world’s slaves, has 14,000,000 slaves who are forced to work and pay off the debt they owe to their employers. Slaves all over the world, including those in India, live in fear of being punished for doing their work wrong. Similar to the slaves on the plantations, each day they work and that is all they do. They suffer from diseases and pains and they live in suffrage. Their children are forced to work and pay off their parents’ debt.
For hundreds of years slavery has been around without end and similar to Frederick Douglass, slaves have many desires and being free is a want and a wish that they all strive for. Slaves are forced to work, they are required to stay with their masters, and they are poorly fed which are all characteristics of Frederick Douglass’ life. In opposition, modern day slaves are in their position because of debt and there is a way for them to be free. Slavery should have ended many years ago, but it didn’t and today many live through slavery in fear. Just as Frederick Douglass was, modern day slaves are compelled to work.
They work in harsh conditions and fear beatings and violence due to inhumane work. The Indian slaves suffer from diseases and illnesses spread by others similar to the lives of slaves on the plantations. Thirty one year old Kishan, a slave in present day India, tells of his life as a slave and the work he is required to do; “I have been working in a quarry, cutting stones from the raw rock for more than 16 years. I am not happy with this work. My wife also works with me making Rs. 60 to 90 (USD 1 to 1.
50) a day. We get skin problems, colds and coughs. Our eyes also get infected. We also suffer from back pain and joint pain.” He makes 60 to 90 rupees a day which is equivalent to 1 to 1.
5 US dollar. Because of all the work they are forced to do, they get sick and suffer from injuries and pains. They have no choice but to work because the slaves and their masters have discordant opinions about freedom. Because of their masters, the slaves are manifesting actions of animals similar to the plantation slaves who seemed like nothing more than that to their masters. Indians are threatened by sexual and physical violence while plantation slaves were whipped and beaten.
The beatings received were ineffable and they caused some slaves to die. An LATimes article explains how they are beaten and in one case they found a girl beaten and badly bruised with cuts and gashes which were caused by her employer or master. Work is cruel and miserable and the masters are impudent and feel no mercy for the slaves. The slaves have to exercise prudence in order to avoid the grueling punishments that they could receive. Fear of being beaten or even death came with everything they did and slaves in Frederick’s experience and today live their lives deprived of many things. Different than the experience of Frederick Douglass, slaves in modern day are in their position because of debt.
They are contrived to sell their labor to their employers in order to pay off the debt they owe. Their debt is then passed on to their children and each of them are enslaved and required to work. In Frederick’s experience, as a baby he was taken from his mother and brought to a plantation where he began his life of slavery. In other cases, slaves were kidnapped, taken to auction, and sold and transported to an owner of a plantation. The owners conjectured the abilities and lives the slaves had and just bought them so that they could have another worker. Slavery changes a life and the life of each slave was changed dramatically the day they became a slave.
Although it isn’t very welcoming, for the modern day slaves of India there is a safe way to be free. These slaves have the opportunity to be free if they pay off the debt they owe to their employers. If they pay off their debt at once the work they have to do is limited to one working season. Therefore, they can pay off their loans and debt and it will not be passed on to their children. On the other hand, slaves like Frederick had no hope in becoming free unless they took a risk.
Due to the existence of the Underground Railroad, slaves could wait for a conductor, a person who led slaves to safe places, to come to their plantation. The conductors would then lead them to a safe place where they would then be guided to the North and taken to a place where they could go live freely like Canada. Some slaves would even run away without the aid of a conductor, instead they would travel on their own. Whether with the help of a conductor or not, a slave who attempted to escape was risking their life and if caught they would be whipped and beaten and depending on their master they could be killed. It is easier for a slave to be freed in India compared to the past, however, it isn’t that much easier. Slavery may have ended in many people’s opinions, however, those beliefs they have are wrong.
Today, India has over fourteen million slaves and slavery is also in other countries like Pakistan. They live miserable lives full of despair and hardship. “Abolition of slavery had been the deepest desire and the great labor of my life”, Frederick Douglass. Their hope of emancipation is slim and they are forced to work because of debt they owe to their employers. Each slave has one thing they reach for and that’s freedom and they all strive to make that happen just as Frederick did.
The only thing that keeps them going is the hope of freedom. Slaves in modern day are living lives similar to those experiences of Frederick Douglass with masters who hector them into doing many things. Both of their lives were and are filled with hard work and cruel lifestyle. The slaves execrate their masters because they beat them often and treat them like animals rather than humans. On the other hand, modern day slaves are in their position because of debt rather than auctions. The way of being free is different for both types of slaves and for Frederick it involved a much bigger risk.
Slavery deprives a person of a normal life with normal rights and normal hope and it is unfortunate to think that it may still be a part of this world for many years to come.
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Modern Day Slavery in India
For many, the end of slavery was the day the Emancipation Proclamation was announced by Abraham Lincoln, but now over a hundred years later slavery is still occurring.
Today, there are around 31,000,000 slaves in the world who are relying on hope. India, the home to around half the world’s slaves, has 14,000,000 slaves who are forced to work and pay off the debt they owe to their employers. Slaves all over the world, including those in India, live in fear of being punished for doing their work wrong. Similar to the slaves on the plantations, each day they work and that is all they do. They suffer from diseases and pains and they live in suffrage. Their children are forced to work and pay off their parents’ debt.
For hundreds of years slavery has been around without end and similar to Frederick Douglass, slaves have many desires and being free is a want and a wish that they all strive for. Slaves are forced to work, they are required to stay with their masters, and they are poorly fed which are all characteristics of Frederick Douglass’ life. In opposition, modern day slaves are in their position because of debt and there is a way for them to be free. Slavery should have ended many years ago, but it didn’t and today many live through slavery in fear. Just as Frederick Douglass was, modern day slaves are compelled to work.
They work in harsh conditions and fear beatings and violence due to inhumane work. The Indian slaves suffer from diseases and illnesses spread by others similar to the lives of slaves on the plantations. Thirty one year old Kishan, a slave in present day India, tells of his life as a slave and the work he is required to do; “I have been working in a quarry, cutting stones from the raw rock for more than 16 years. I am not happy with this work. My wife also works with me making Rs. 60 to 90 (USD 1 to 1.
50) a day. We get skin problems, colds and coughs. Our eyes also get infected. We also suffer from back pain and joint pain.” He makes 60 to 90 rupees a day which is equivalent to 1 to 1.
5 US dollar. Because of all the work they are forced to do, they get sick and suffer from injuries and pains. They have no choice but to work because the slaves and their masters have discordant opinions about freedom. Because of their masters, the slaves are manifesting actions of animals similar to the plantation slaves who seemed like nothing more than that to their masters. Indians are threatened by sexual and physical violence while plantation slaves were whipped and beaten.
The beatings received were ineffable and they caused some slaves to die. An LATimes article explains how they are beaten and in one case they found a girl beaten and badly bruised with cuts and gashes which were caused by her employer or master. Work is cruel and miserable and the masters are impudent and feel no mercy for the slaves. The slaves have to exercise prudence in order to avoid the grueling punishments that they could receive. Fear of being beaten or even death came with everything they did and slaves in Frederick’s experience and today live their lives deprived of many things. Different than the experience of Frederick Douglass, slaves in modern day are in their position because of debt.
They are contrived to sell their labor to their employers in order to pay off the debt they owe. Their debt is then passed on to their children and each of them are enslaved and required to work. In Frederick’s experience, as a baby he was taken from his mother and brought to a plantation where he began his life of slavery. In other cases, slaves were kidnapped, taken to auction, and sold and transported to an owner of a plantation. The owners conjectured the abilities and lives the slaves had and just bought them so that they could have another worker. Slavery changes a life and the life of each slave was changed dramatically the day they became a slave.
Although it isn’t very welcoming, for the modern day slaves of India there is a safe way to be free. These slaves have the opportunity to be free if they pay off the debt they owe to their employers. If they pay off their debt at once the work they have to do is limited to one working season. Therefore, they can pay off their loans and debt and it will not be passed on to their children. On the other hand, slaves like Frederick had no hope in becoming free unless they took a risk.
Due to the existence of the Underground Railroad, slaves could wait for a conductor, a person who led slaves to safe places, to come to their plantation. The conductors would then lead them to a safe place where they would then be guided to the North and taken to a place where they could go live freely like Canada. Some slaves would even run away without the aid of a conductor, instead they would travel on their own. Whether with the help of a conductor or not, a slave who attempted to escape was risking their life and if caught they would be whipped and beaten and depending on their master they could be killed. It is easier for a slave to be freed in India compared to the past, however, it isn’t that much easier. Slavery may have ended in many people’s opinions, however, those beliefs they have are wrong.
Today, India has over fourteen million slaves and slavery is also in other countries like Pakistan. They live miserable lives full of despair and hardship. “Abolition of slavery had been the deepest desire and the great labor of my life”, Frederick Douglass. Their hope of emancipation is slim and they are forced to work because of debt they owe to their employers. Each slave has one thing they reach for and that’s freedom and they all strive to make that happen just as Frederick did.
The only thing that keeps them going is the hope of freedom. Slaves in modern day are living lives similar to those experiences of Frederick Douglass with masters who hector them into doing many things. Both of their lives were and are filled with hard work and cruel lifestyle. The slaves execrate their masters because they beat them often and treat them like animals rather than humans. On the other hand, modern day slaves are in their position because of debt rather than auctions. The way of being free is different for both types of slaves and for Frederick it involved a much bigger risk.
Slavery deprives a person of a normal life with normal rights and normal hope and it is unfortunate to think that it may still be a part of this world for many years to come.
| 1,381
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Dreyfus case underscored and intensified bitter divisions within French politics and society. The fact that it followed other scandals — the Boulanger affair, the Wilson case, and the bribery of government officials and journalists that was associated with the financing of the Panama Canal — suggested that the young French Republic was in danger of collapse. The controversy involved critical institutions and issues, including monarchists and republicans, the political parties, the Catholic Church, the army, and strong anti-Semitic sentiment.
Alfred Dreyfus, an obscure captain in the French army, came from a Jewish family that had left its native Alsace for Paris when Germany annexed that province in 1871. In 1894 papers discovered in a wastebasket in the office of a German military attaché made it appear that a French military officer was providing secret information to the German government. Dreyfus came under suspicion, probably because he was a Jew and also because he had access to the type of information that had been supplied to the German agent. The army authorities declared that Dreyfus’ handwriting was similar to that on the papers. Despite his protestations of innocence he was found guilty of treason in a secret military court-martial, during which he was denied the right to examine the evidence against him. The army stripped him of his rank in a humiliating ceremony and shipped him off to [life imprisonment on] Devil’s Island, a penal colony located off the coast of South America. The political right, whose strength was steadily increasing, cited Dreyfus’ alleged espionage as further evidence of the failures of the Republic. Édouard Drumont’s right-wing newspaper La Libre Parole intensified its attacks on the Jews, portraying this incident as further evidence of Jewish treachery.
Dreyfus seemed destined to die in disgrace. He had few defenders, and anti-Semitism was rampant in the French army. An unlikely defender came to his rescue, motivated not by sympathy for Dreyfus but by the evidence that he had been “railroaded” and that the officer who had actually committed espionage remained in position to do further damage. Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart, an unapologetic anti-Semite, was appointed chief of army intelligence two years after Dreyfus was convicted. Picquart, after examining the evidence and investigating the affair in greater detail, concluded that the guilty officer was a Major named Walsin Esterhazy. Picquart soon discovered, however, that the army was more concerned about preserving its image than rectifying its error, and when he persisted in attempting to reopen the case the army transferred him to Tunisia. A military court then acquitted Esterhazy, ignoring the convincing evidence of his guilt.
“The Affair” might have ended then but for the determined intervention of the novelist Émile Zola, who published his denunciation (“J’accuse!”) of the army cover-up in a daily newspaper. [Note: Zola was found guilty of libeling the army and was sentenced to imprisonment. He fled to England, where he remained until being granted amnesty.] At this point public passion became more aroused than ever, as the political right and the leadership of the Catholic Church — both of which were openly hostile to the Republic — declared the Dreyfus case to be a conspiracy of Jews and Freemasons designed to damage the prestige of the army and thereby destroy France.
Sometime later another military officer discovered that additional documents had been added to the Dreyfus file. He determined that a lieutenant colonel (Hubert Henry) had forged the documents — which seemed to strengthen the case against Dreyfus — in anticipation that Dreyfus would be given a new trial. Immediately after an interrogation the lieutenant colonel committed suicide. In 1899, the army did in fact conduct a new court-martial which again found Dreyfus guilty and condenmed him to 10 years detention, although it observed that there were “extenuating circumstances.”
In September 1899, the president of France pardoned Dreyfus, thereby making it possible for him to return to Paris, but he had to wait until 1906 — twelve years after the case had begun — to be exonerated of the charges, after which he was restored to his former military rank.
“The Affair” had inspired moderate republicans, Radicals, and socialists to work together, and the ultimate exoneration of Dreyfus strengthened the Republic, in no small part because of the conduct of its enemies, most notably the army and the Catholic hierarchy. In 1905 the Radical party, emphasizing the role of the Catholic leadership in the Dreyfus case, succeeded in passing legislation separating church and state.
Sources: The Affair - The Case of Alfred Dreyfus. Homepage of Michael Sinclair
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The Dreyfus case underscored and intensified bitter divisions within French politics and society. The fact that it followed other scandals — the Boulanger affair, the Wilson case, and the bribery of government officials and journalists that was associated with the financing of the Panama Canal — suggested that the young French Republic was in danger of collapse. The controversy involved critical institutions and issues, including monarchists and republicans, the political parties, the Catholic Church, the army, and strong anti-Semitic sentiment.
Alfred Dreyfus, an obscure captain in the French army, came from a Jewish family that had left its native Alsace for Paris when Germany annexed that province in 1871. In 1894 papers discovered in a wastebasket in the office of a German military attaché made it appear that a French military officer was providing secret information to the German government. Dreyfus came under suspicion, probably because he was a Jew and also because he had access to the type of information that had been supplied to the German agent. The army authorities declared that Dreyfus’ handwriting was similar to that on the papers. Despite his protestations of innocence he was found guilty of treason in a secret military court-martial, during which he was denied the right to examine the evidence against him. The army stripped him of his rank in a humiliating ceremony and shipped him off to [life imprisonment on] Devil’s Island, a penal colony located off the coast of South America. The political right, whose strength was steadily increasing, cited Dreyfus’ alleged espionage as further evidence of the failures of the Republic. Édouard Drumont’s right-wing newspaper La Libre Parole intensified its attacks on the Jews, portraying this incident as further evidence of Jewish treachery.
Dreyfus seemed destined to die in disgrace. He had few defenders, and anti-Semitism was rampant in the French army. An unlikely defender came to his rescue, motivated not by sympathy for Dreyfus but by the evidence that he had been “railroaded” and that the officer who had actually committed espionage remained in position to do further damage. Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart, an unapologetic anti-Semite, was appointed chief of army intelligence two years after Dreyfus was convicted. Picquart, after examining the evidence and investigating the affair in greater detail, concluded that the guilty officer was a Major named Walsin Esterhazy. Picquart soon discovered, however, that the army was more concerned about preserving its image than rectifying its error, and when he persisted in attempting to reopen the case the army transferred him to Tunisia. A military court then acquitted Esterhazy, ignoring the convincing evidence of his guilt.
“The Affair” might have ended then but for the determined intervention of the novelist Émile Zola, who published his denunciation (“J’accuse!”) of the army cover-up in a daily newspaper. [Note: Zola was found guilty of libeling the army and was sentenced to imprisonment. He fled to England, where he remained until being granted amnesty.] At this point public passion became more aroused than ever, as the political right and the leadership of the Catholic Church — both of which were openly hostile to the Republic — declared the Dreyfus case to be a conspiracy of Jews and Freemasons designed to damage the prestige of the army and thereby destroy France.
Sometime later another military officer discovered that additional documents had been added to the Dreyfus file. He determined that a lieutenant colonel (Hubert Henry) had forged the documents — which seemed to strengthen the case against Dreyfus — in anticipation that Dreyfus would be given a new trial. Immediately after an interrogation the lieutenant colonel committed suicide. In 1899, the army did in fact conduct a new court-martial which again found Dreyfus guilty and condenmed him to 10 years detention, although it observed that there were “extenuating circumstances.”
In September 1899, the president of France pardoned Dreyfus, thereby making it possible for him to return to Paris, but he had to wait until 1906 — twelve years after the case had begun — to be exonerated of the charges, after which he was restored to his former military rank.
“The Affair” had inspired moderate republicans, Radicals, and socialists to work together, and the ultimate exoneration of Dreyfus strengthened the Republic, in no small part because of the conduct of its enemies, most notably the army and the Catholic hierarchy. In 1905 the Radical party, emphasizing the role of the Catholic leadership in the Dreyfus case, succeeded in passing legislation separating church and state.
Sources: The Affair - The Case of Alfred Dreyfus. Homepage of Michael Sinclair
| 1,001
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Wentworth Cheswell is considered New Hampshire’s first archaeologist and the first African-American elected to public office in the United States. He also rode north when Paul Revere rode west to warn colonists that the redcoats were coming.
He was born on April 11, 1746, to a biracial father, Hopestill Wentworth, and Katherine Keniston, who was white. Hopestill was the son of a white woman and an enslaved black man, Richard Cheswell. Under the laws of the day, Hopestill’s status followed his mother, so he was free.
Eventually Hopestill’s father bought his freedom. and in 1717 purchased 20 acres of land in Newmarket, N.H. Richard’s land purchase is considered the first by an African-American in New Hampshire.
Hopestill, a housewright and carpenter, built the John Paul Jones House in Portsmouth, N.H., as well as the Samuel Langdon House (now in Sturbridge Village) and the Bell Tavern (since burned in the Portsmouth fire of 1867).
Wentworth Cheswell, Town Leader
Hopestill earned enough money to send Wentworth to Governor Dummer Academy in Byfield, Mass. Wentworth took advantage of his unusual educational privilege and became a schoolmaster in Newmarket. By the time he reached 21 he owned more than 30 acres and a pew in the meetinghouse.
At 21 he married 17-year-old Mary Davis of Durham, N.H. They had 13 children. Their descendants identified as white, and the census listed Cheswell as white. Records of comments by his contemporaries suggest they viewed him as biracial.
In 1768, 22-year-old Wentworth Cheswell won election as town constable. George Mason University determined that made him the first African-American elected to public office. Cheswell beat out Vermont’s Alexander Twilight for the honor. For all but one year of his life, Cheswell held public office including town selectman, assessor, scrivener, justice of the peace and auditor.
Riding With Revere
He also won election as town messenger for the Committee of Safety, which meant he had to carry news to and from Exeter, N.H. On Dec. 13, 1774, he and Paul Revere rode in different directions to warn Portsmouth citizens of the approach of two British warships. The British intended to retake gunpowder and weapons stolen by the colonists from Fort William and Mary.
When the American Revolution broke out, Wentworth Cheswell enlisted in Col. John Langdon’s Company of Light Horse Volunteers and fought at the Battle of Saratoga. When he finished his military service he returned to Newmarket, where he ran a store next to his schoolhouse. He also did fieldwork and wrote reports on the town’s artifacts. For that he is considered New Hampshire’s first archaeologist.
Cheswell and other men also founded the Newmarket Social Library, to which he bequeathed his books.
Wentworth Cheswell died at age 70 of typhus on March 8, 1817. He and his descendants were buried on his farm.
This story about Wentworth Cheswell was updated in 2019.
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Wentworth Cheswell is considered New Hampshire’s first archaeologist and the first African-American elected to public office in the United States. He also rode north when Paul Revere rode west to warn colonists that the redcoats were coming.
He was born on April 11, 1746, to a biracial father, Hopestill Wentworth, and Katherine Keniston, who was white. Hopestill was the son of a white woman and an enslaved black man, Richard Cheswell. Under the laws of the day, Hopestill’s status followed his mother, so he was free.
Eventually Hopestill’s father bought his freedom. and in 1717 purchased 20 acres of land in Newmarket, N.H. Richard’s land purchase is considered the first by an African-American in New Hampshire.
Hopestill, a housewright and carpenter, built the John Paul Jones House in Portsmouth, N.H., as well as the Samuel Langdon House (now in Sturbridge Village) and the Bell Tavern (since burned in the Portsmouth fire of 1867).
Wentworth Cheswell, Town Leader
Hopestill earned enough money to send Wentworth to Governor Dummer Academy in Byfield, Mass. Wentworth took advantage of his unusual educational privilege and became a schoolmaster in Newmarket. By the time he reached 21 he owned more than 30 acres and a pew in the meetinghouse.
At 21 he married 17-year-old Mary Davis of Durham, N.H. They had 13 children. Their descendants identified as white, and the census listed Cheswell as white. Records of comments by his contemporaries suggest they viewed him as biracial.
In 1768, 22-year-old Wentworth Cheswell won election as town constable. George Mason University determined that made him the first African-American elected to public office. Cheswell beat out Vermont’s Alexander Twilight for the honor. For all but one year of his life, Cheswell held public office including town selectman, assessor, scrivener, justice of the peace and auditor.
Riding With Revere
He also won election as town messenger for the Committee of Safety, which meant he had to carry news to and from Exeter, N.H. On Dec. 13, 1774, he and Paul Revere rode in different directions to warn Portsmouth citizens of the approach of two British warships. The British intended to retake gunpowder and weapons stolen by the colonists from Fort William and Mary.
When the American Revolution broke out, Wentworth Cheswell enlisted in Col. John Langdon’s Company of Light Horse Volunteers and fought at the Battle of Saratoga. When he finished his military service he returned to Newmarket, where he ran a store next to his schoolhouse. He also did fieldwork and wrote reports on the town’s artifacts. For that he is considered New Hampshire’s first archaeologist.
Cheswell and other men also founded the Newmarket Social Library, to which he bequeathed his books.
Wentworth Cheswell died at age 70 of typhus on March 8, 1817. He and his descendants were buried on his farm.
This story about Wentworth Cheswell was updated in 2019.
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The Curragh Incident
A proto-mutiny took place in Ireland on March 20th, 1914.
In the early years of the 20th century Ireland seemed to be moving towards civil war. Nationalists in the mainly Roman Catholic areas of most of the country were demanding more independence from Great Britain, while Protestants in the north, in Ulster, threatened violent resistance if the demand was granted. In 1912 the Liberal party government at Westminster, which depended on Irish MPs in the House of Commons to stay in power, brought in a Home Rule bill that would have allowed the creation of a parliament in Dublin to control Irish internal matters, while foreign affairs remained in Westminster’s hands. It was denounced as inadequate by Sinn Fein, the Irish nationalist organisation which wanted total independence, while Ulster Protestants, led by Edward Carson, signed a Solemn League and Covenant refusing ever to submit to an all-Irish parliament.
The Home Rule bill passed the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords. In 1913 the bill again passed the Commons and was again rejected by the Lords. The Ulster Protestants now created the Ulster Volunteer Force, which recruited thousands of men ready to fight, while Sinn Fein and other nationalist groups reacted by forming their own army, the Irish (or National) Volunteers. Both sides obtained arms from Germany, which saw political advantage in meddling.
Constitutionally, the Lords would not be able to reject the Home Rule bill for a third time when it came up again in 1914, but the Liberal government in London was worried about the attitude of British troops in Ireland if they were ordered to put down a rising in Ulster. The prime minister, H.H. Asquith, set up a Cabinet committee ‘to look into the matter in all its aspects’. It included Jack Seely, the secretary of state for war, Augustine Birrell, who was chief secretary for Ireland, and Winston Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty. The liberal grandee Austen Chamberlain said that all the politicians wanted a settlement, but had no clear idea what to do.
The details of what happened are uncertain because different accounts were given by those involved, but Westminster feared that the Ulster Unionists might invade southern Ireland and General Sir Arthur Paget, commander-in-chief in Ireland, was ordered to make preparations to prevent them. On March 20th, without written orders from London (perhaps because the politicians did not want to put anything in writing), Paget informed his senior officers in Ireland that action against Ulster was imminent. He said that officers who had homes in Ulster would be allowed to ‘disappear’ temporarily, but that any other officers who were not ready to obey orders against the Ulstermen were to say so and would not be allowed to resign but would be dismissed from the service immediately.
The British army’s principal base in Ireland was the Curragh Camp in County Kildare, not far from Dublin, where two cavalry units, the 5th and 16th Lancers, were stationed. On Paget’s instructions the officers there were sounded out and Paget reported to the War Office in London that almost all of the 5th Lancers officers had said they would instantly resign if ordered to act against the Ulster Volunteers and he feared that the same thing would happen with the 16th Lancers. Brigadier-General Hubert Gough, the commander of the cavalry brigade, had indicated that he would do the same.
The news created a sensation in the press, which reported ‘an Astounding Action’ and ‘an Arrogant Claim to Disobey Orders’ in ‘a Curragh conspiracy’. The authorities in London back-tracked at high speed. Asquith told the public that there had been ‘an honest misunderstanding’ and that the government had never intended to take punitive action against the Ulster Volunteer Force. The War Office announced that there was no intention of using the army to enforce the Home Rule bill.
The Curragh Incident is often called a mutiny or a proto-mutiny, as the dissenting officers had clearly stated that they would disobey orders, though they had not actually disobeyed any because no orders had been issued. The episode heartened the Ulster Unionists while reinforcing nationalist doubts of Westminster’s appetite for Irish self-rule.
On May 25th the Home Rule bill passed the Commons again, but in June the government amended it to allow the temporary exclusion of Ulster for six years. At the end of July the First World War broke out. George V gave his reluctant assent to the Home Rule bill in September, but it was put in suspense for the duration of the war. Thousands of men from all over Ireland fought for Great Britain in the war and it was not until long after it was over that the Irish Question would finally be settled.
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The Curragh Incident
A proto-mutiny took place in Ireland on March 20th, 1914.
In the early years of the 20th century Ireland seemed to be moving towards civil war. Nationalists in the mainly Roman Catholic areas of most of the country were demanding more independence from Great Britain, while Protestants in the north, in Ulster, threatened violent resistance if the demand was granted. In 1912 the Liberal party government at Westminster, which depended on Irish MPs in the House of Commons to stay in power, brought in a Home Rule bill that would have allowed the creation of a parliament in Dublin to control Irish internal matters, while foreign affairs remained in Westminster’s hands. It was denounced as inadequate by Sinn Fein, the Irish nationalist organisation which wanted total independence, while Ulster Protestants, led by Edward Carson, signed a Solemn League and Covenant refusing ever to submit to an all-Irish parliament.
The Home Rule bill passed the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords. In 1913 the bill again passed the Commons and was again rejected by the Lords. The Ulster Protestants now created the Ulster Volunteer Force, which recruited thousands of men ready to fight, while Sinn Fein and other nationalist groups reacted by forming their own army, the Irish (or National) Volunteers. Both sides obtained arms from Germany, which saw political advantage in meddling.
Constitutionally, the Lords would not be able to reject the Home Rule bill for a third time when it came up again in 1914, but the Liberal government in London was worried about the attitude of British troops in Ireland if they were ordered to put down a rising in Ulster. The prime minister, H.H. Asquith, set up a Cabinet committee ‘to look into the matter in all its aspects’. It included Jack Seely, the secretary of state for war, Augustine Birrell, who was chief secretary for Ireland, and Winston Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty. The liberal grandee Austen Chamberlain said that all the politicians wanted a settlement, but had no clear idea what to do.
The details of what happened are uncertain because different accounts were given by those involved, but Westminster feared that the Ulster Unionists might invade southern Ireland and General Sir Arthur Paget, commander-in-chief in Ireland, was ordered to make preparations to prevent them. On March 20th, without written orders from London (perhaps because the politicians did not want to put anything in writing), Paget informed his senior officers in Ireland that action against Ulster was imminent. He said that officers who had homes in Ulster would be allowed to ‘disappear’ temporarily, but that any other officers who were not ready to obey orders against the Ulstermen were to say so and would not be allowed to resign but would be dismissed from the service immediately.
The British army’s principal base in Ireland was the Curragh Camp in County Kildare, not far from Dublin, where two cavalry units, the 5th and 16th Lancers, were stationed. On Paget’s instructions the officers there were sounded out and Paget reported to the War Office in London that almost all of the 5th Lancers officers had said they would instantly resign if ordered to act against the Ulster Volunteers and he feared that the same thing would happen with the 16th Lancers. Brigadier-General Hubert Gough, the commander of the cavalry brigade, had indicated that he would do the same.
The news created a sensation in the press, which reported ‘an Astounding Action’ and ‘an Arrogant Claim to Disobey Orders’ in ‘a Curragh conspiracy’. The authorities in London back-tracked at high speed. Asquith told the public that there had been ‘an honest misunderstanding’ and that the government had never intended to take punitive action against the Ulster Volunteer Force. The War Office announced that there was no intention of using the army to enforce the Home Rule bill.
The Curragh Incident is often called a mutiny or a proto-mutiny, as the dissenting officers had clearly stated that they would disobey orders, though they had not actually disobeyed any because no orders had been issued. The episode heartened the Ulster Unionists while reinforcing nationalist doubts of Westminster’s appetite for Irish self-rule.
On May 25th the Home Rule bill passed the Commons again, but in June the government amended it to allow the temporary exclusion of Ulster for six years. At the end of July the First World War broke out. George V gave his reluctant assent to the Home Rule bill in September, but it was put in suspense for the duration of the war. Thousands of men from all over Ireland fought for Great Britain in the war and it was not until long after it was over that the Irish Question would finally be settled.
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ENGLISH
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Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British politician of the Conservative Party who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach. Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or “Tory democracy”. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He is the only British prime minister to have been of Jewish birth. He was also a novelist, publishing works of fiction even as prime minister.
Disraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then a part of Middlesex. His father left Judaism after a dispute at his synagogue; young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12. After several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837. In 1846 the Prime Minister at the time, Sir Robert Peel, split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws, which involved ending the tariff on imported grain. Disraeli clashed with Peel in the House of Commons. Disraeli became a major figure in the party. When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s, Disraeli served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.
Upon Derby’s retirement in 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that year’s general election. He returned to the Opposition, before leading the party to winning a majority in the 1874 general election. He maintained a close friendship with Queen Victoria, who in 1876 appointed him Earl of Beaconsfield. Disraeli’s second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of other European powers, such as Russia, to gain at its expense. Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company (in Ottoman-controlled Egypt). In 1878, faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he worked at the Congress of Berlin to obtain peace in the Balkans at terms favourable to Britain and unfavourable to Russia, its longstanding enemy. This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europe’s leading statesmen.
World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives. Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support. He angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain. With Gladstone conducting a massive speaking campaign, his Liberals defeated Disraeli’s Conservatives at the 1880 general election. In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in Opposition. He had throughout his career written novels, beginning in 1826, and he published his last completed novel, Endymion, shortly before he died at the age of 76.
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Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British politician of the Conservative Party who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach. Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or “Tory democracy”. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He is the only British prime minister to have been of Jewish birth. He was also a novelist, publishing works of fiction even as prime minister.
Disraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then a part of Middlesex. His father left Judaism after a dispute at his synagogue; young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12. After several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837. In 1846 the Prime Minister at the time, Sir Robert Peel, split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws, which involved ending the tariff on imported grain. Disraeli clashed with Peel in the House of Commons. Disraeli became a major figure in the party. When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s, Disraeli served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.
Upon Derby’s retirement in 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that year’s general election. He returned to the Opposition, before leading the party to winning a majority in the 1874 general election. He maintained a close friendship with Queen Victoria, who in 1876 appointed him Earl of Beaconsfield. Disraeli’s second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of other European powers, such as Russia, to gain at its expense. Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company (in Ottoman-controlled Egypt). In 1878, faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he worked at the Congress of Berlin to obtain peace in the Balkans at terms favourable to Britain and unfavourable to Russia, its longstanding enemy. This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europe’s leading statesmen.
World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives. Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support. He angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain. With Gladstone conducting a massive speaking campaign, his Liberals defeated Disraeli’s Conservatives at the 1880 general election. In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in Opposition. He had throughout his career written novels, beginning in 1826, and he published his last completed novel, Endymion, shortly before he died at the age of 76.
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The Many Variations of The Famed Spanish Artist
Pablo Picasso is one of the most famed painters on the globe. Well known for his abstract and cubist paintings his name is synonymous with this particular style of artistry. Yet Picasso did not pioneer this movement alone, his friend and colleague Georges Braque was equally responsible for the rise of this avant-garde style. In the same way Picasso is often only associated with cubism by the layman, yet the Spanish artist was capable of many different variations and certainly did not begin putting paintbrush to canvas and arriving at a cubist form. What is clear is that Picasso (as with many other artists) is that he went through phases, not only learning new skills and image making techniques but also focusing and practicing a style over and over. These phases are referred to as periods and there are several in which he worked through over his lifetime.
The first notable phase Picasso went through was a sombre one. This three-year stretch saw him create images that were not just chromatically blue but also sorrowful in subject matter. The faces of characters were solemn, body language was uncomfortable, and the entire scene of these paintings seemed depressed. A great example of this is the 1903 painting ‘The Old Guitarist’ where a somewhat skeletal elderly man hunches over a guitar facedown, the brown of the guitar’s wood providing the only nonblue elements in the painting.
Luckily things picked up as he entered his second period in 1904, this could have been due to the fact he was romantically involved with a female artist at the time. During this time warmer colours worked their way onto the canvas as did more elaborately dressed figures. Playful circus people and nude models stood proud in this time as things brightened in his life and underneath his brush.
Thanks to African culture and artefacts spreading into Europe at the time, Picasso stumbled across some African art that gave him some profound inspiration. Obviously influenced by the seemingly primitive shapes of sculptures as well as the exaggerated forms of tribal masks, Picasso began to put his own spin on these elements. Here we see covered faces, geometrical female poses, and often bolder colours being introduced.
Beginning in 1909 Picasso focused on the style which he would later be famous for, though many of the paintings in his African period are thought of as proto cubist, this particular time saw him work through many variations of the umbrella term. Beginning with analytic cubism; a name which comes from Picasso and Braque analysing the geometry of shapes and recreating them in simpler more square versions, the pair used a mainly monochrome palette as they explored this style. Later crystal cubism would form as flatter shapes overlapped and intermeshed with one another creating complex forms. As this continued the lighting and angles of the shapes would be enhanced with rendering to create almost surreal planes. This made sense as his final phase would be a surreal one that lasted a decade before the great depression hit.
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The Many Variations of The Famed Spanish Artist
Pablo Picasso is one of the most famed painters on the globe. Well known for his abstract and cubist paintings his name is synonymous with this particular style of artistry. Yet Picasso did not pioneer this movement alone, his friend and colleague Georges Braque was equally responsible for the rise of this avant-garde style. In the same way Picasso is often only associated with cubism by the layman, yet the Spanish artist was capable of many different variations and certainly did not begin putting paintbrush to canvas and arriving at a cubist form. What is clear is that Picasso (as with many other artists) is that he went through phases, not only learning new skills and image making techniques but also focusing and practicing a style over and over. These phases are referred to as periods and there are several in which he worked through over his lifetime.
The first notable phase Picasso went through was a sombre one. This three-year stretch saw him create images that were not just chromatically blue but also sorrowful in subject matter. The faces of characters were solemn, body language was uncomfortable, and the entire scene of these paintings seemed depressed. A great example of this is the 1903 painting ‘The Old Guitarist’ where a somewhat skeletal elderly man hunches over a guitar facedown, the brown of the guitar’s wood providing the only nonblue elements in the painting.
Luckily things picked up as he entered his second period in 1904, this could have been due to the fact he was romantically involved with a female artist at the time. During this time warmer colours worked their way onto the canvas as did more elaborately dressed figures. Playful circus people and nude models stood proud in this time as things brightened in his life and underneath his brush.
Thanks to African culture and artefacts spreading into Europe at the time, Picasso stumbled across some African art that gave him some profound inspiration. Obviously influenced by the seemingly primitive shapes of sculptures as well as the exaggerated forms of tribal masks, Picasso began to put his own spin on these elements. Here we see covered faces, geometrical female poses, and often bolder colours being introduced.
Beginning in 1909 Picasso focused on the style which he would later be famous for, though many of the paintings in his African period are thought of as proto cubist, this particular time saw him work through many variations of the umbrella term. Beginning with analytic cubism; a name which comes from Picasso and Braque analysing the geometry of shapes and recreating them in simpler more square versions, the pair used a mainly monochrome palette as they explored this style. Later crystal cubism would form as flatter shapes overlapped and intermeshed with one another creating complex forms. As this continued the lighting and angles of the shapes would be enhanced with rendering to create almost surreal planes. This made sense as his final phase would be a surreal one that lasted a decade before the great depression hit.
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"Among diehard African political activists and Pan-Africanists, Nkrumah was and continues to remain a revered hero, committed nationalist and Pan-Africanist deserving of high esteem.” (Biney)
Ama Biney is able to summarize what exactly Kwame Nkrumah meant and continues to mean for Africa and its history. It is quite often that Kwame Nkrumah is mentioned in the same breath as the famous Nelson Mandela, but why is Nkrumah not as famous if not more famous? He was in power before Mandela, believed in African nationalism, had a great understanding of socialism/communism, was a great communicator of his political beliefs and believed in the Pan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism, of course was made popular by the also famous W.E.B. DuBois. To accurately understand who Kwame Nkrumah was, and why he is not as revered as Mandela, we must understand three major areas of Nkrumah’s life; his upbringing, inspirations and education, his coming to power, and his fall from grace. These three areas are clear sections of Nkrumah’s life we can easily dissect to get a full understanding of the legacy of Kwame Nkrumah.
Upbringing, inspirations and education
As previously stated, Nkrumah believed in one day uniting Africa. In his early age Nkrumah was able to travel to the United States to begin his studies. Studying at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania he became heavily influenced by the philosophies of Karl Marx and Lenin. He enjoyed the thought of redistributing wealth and increasing productivity. He was also inspired by the writings Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. DuBois. He believed in returning Africans to their homeland (Africa) but was a far better communicator and promoter than W.E.B. Dubois. Once arriving in England to study at the London School of Economics, Nkrumah befriended George Padmore. It was with Padmore that Nkrumah was able to organize the 5th Pan-African Congress. Kwame Nkrumah was often described as magnetic and an incredible speaker. It was because of this that DuBois and others, who agreed on Pan-Africanism, supported Kwame Nkrumah in his entire advocacy.
Although influenced by Dubois on Pan-Africanism, Kwame Nkrumah held a slightly different viewpoint. Dubois believed, as did many others, in returning all Africans from the globe to Africa. In his thoughts he believed this would achieve two results with one movement, raise the number of educated Africans and strengthen Africa’s voice globally. Returning African slaves to Africa was popular in America and with the American Press. Nkrumah’s views differed slightly by realizing that although this was advantageous position, it was not very realistic. He was able to understand that for different reasons many blacks would not choose to return to Africa. Nkrumah understood that even when being discriminated against, the idea of returning to Africa and enjoying freedom meant living an almost primitive life in comparison.
It was for this reason that Nkrumah endorsed a...
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"Among diehard African political activists and Pan-Africanists, Nkrumah was and continues to remain a revered hero, committed nationalist and Pan-Africanist deserving of high esteem.” (Biney)
Ama Biney is able to summarize what exactly Kwame Nkrumah meant and continues to mean for Africa and its history. It is quite often that Kwame Nkrumah is mentioned in the same breath as the famous Nelson Mandela, but why is Nkrumah not as famous if not more famous? He was in power before Mandela, believed in African nationalism, had a great understanding of socialism/communism, was a great communicator of his political beliefs and believed in the Pan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism, of course was made popular by the also famous W.E.B. DuBois. To accurately understand who Kwame Nkrumah was, and why he is not as revered as Mandela, we must understand three major areas of Nkrumah’s life; his upbringing, inspirations and education, his coming to power, and his fall from grace. These three areas are clear sections of Nkrumah’s life we can easily dissect to get a full understanding of the legacy of Kwame Nkrumah.
Upbringing, inspirations and education
As previously stated, Nkrumah believed in one day uniting Africa. In his early age Nkrumah was able to travel to the United States to begin his studies. Studying at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania he became heavily influenced by the philosophies of Karl Marx and Lenin. He enjoyed the thought of redistributing wealth and increasing productivity. He was also inspired by the writings Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. DuBois. He believed in returning Africans to their homeland (Africa) but was a far better communicator and promoter than W.E.B. Dubois. Once arriving in England to study at the London School of Economics, Nkrumah befriended George Padmore. It was with Padmore that Nkrumah was able to organize the 5th Pan-African Congress. Kwame Nkrumah was often described as magnetic and an incredible speaker. It was because of this that DuBois and others, who agreed on Pan-Africanism, supported Kwame Nkrumah in his entire advocacy.
Although influenced by Dubois on Pan-Africanism, Kwame Nkrumah held a slightly different viewpoint. Dubois believed, as did many others, in returning all Africans from the globe to Africa. In his thoughts he believed this would achieve two results with one movement, raise the number of educated Africans and strengthen Africa’s voice globally. Returning African slaves to Africa was popular in America and with the American Press. Nkrumah’s views differed slightly by realizing that although this was advantageous position, it was not very realistic. He was able to understand that for different reasons many blacks would not choose to return to Africa. Nkrumah understood that even when being discriminated against, the idea of returning to Africa and enjoying freedom meant living an almost primitive life in comparison.
It was for this reason that Nkrumah endorsed a...
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ENGLISH
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William IV.—The Story of Two Peaceful Victories
G EORGE IV had only one child, a daughter, and she died some time before her father, so he was succeeded by his brother William, who was sixty-five years old when he came to the throne.
William was called the Sailor King because he had served in the navy. He was bluff and rough and good-natured, not at all like a King. He used to be fond of strolling about London with a walking-stick or an umbrella just like an ordinary man. But British people have always loved a sailor, so they were glad when William became King, and hoped that he would prove a better one than George IV.
That some of his people had not much reverence for him, is shown by one man who wrote of him, "He seems a kind-hearted, well-meaning, not stupid, bustling old fellow, and if he doesn't go mad, may make a very decent King." Later the same man called him, "One of the silliest old gentlemen in his dominions." If he had been left to himself, the "Well-meaning old fellow" would have been quite pleased to jog along without troubling about his kingdom or his duties. But that was not to be. The days of the clatter and jangle of steel armour were over, the roar and crackle of musket and cannon were silent for the time, but in the peace and silence men were thinking and planning and working for the good of the nation.
For hundreds of years the people of Britain had had the right of choosing men to send to Parliament to tell their troubles and their wrongs, and to help to make just laws for the ruling of the country. The whole nation, of course, cannot go to Westminster, for no building would be large enough to contain them all, and the talking would never be finished, and no laws would ever be made. So each county and each big town chooses a man who goes to Parliament to speak and vote in the name of those who send him.
That is what is intended, but at this time the reality was something quite different.
During the hundreds of years which had passed since it had been first arranged which towns should send members to Parliament, there had been many changes. Places which had once been large towns had for some reason or another become deserted. Where there had been houses, churches, shops, and crowded, busy streets, there was now perhaps only one lonely house, or perhaps only a deserted hillside. Yet that lonely house or deserted hillside continued to send a member to Parliament. On the other hand since factories had been built, great towns had sprung up, where a hundred years before there had been perhaps only a single cottage. But these great towns with all their hard-working people had no right to send a member to Parliament, and could have no voice in making the laws.
This seems very absurd. Nowadays, we think it would be quite easy for any sensible man to see that this state of affairs was wrong. But a hundred years ago many sensible people did not see it. They were pleased with things as they were, and very angry with those who tried to alter them.
But some people were quite determined they should be altered, and two men called Lord Grey and Lord John Russell, brought into Parliament what is called the Reform Bill. This Bill took the right of sending any one to Parliament away from the bare and lonely hillsides, and gave the right to the new and busy towns, so that the people should really be represented, that is, should have some one in Parliament to act and speak for them.
There was a long and fierce struggle before this Bill became law. You know that there are two Houses of Parliament, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. A bill to become law must be read in both Houses, and must be voted for by the greater number of the members in each. That is, more than half the members must vote for it. For instance, if there were only one hundred members, at least fifty-one must vote for a bill before it is said to have passed. Having passed both Houses, it must receive the consent of the King, before it can become law.
After a great deal of difficulty the Commons were made to consent to the Reform Bill, but the Lords did not want it, neither did the King, and again and again they refused consent.
The country, however, had become so determined about it that there were riots everywhere when it became known that the Lords would not pass the Bill. The people who had been quite ready to love their King began to hate him, and instead of cheering when he appeared, they hissed and groaned.
So bitter did the feeling become that the friends of the Bill feared there would be another revolution, and at last they forced the King to give his consent. The Lords followed, and the Bill became law.
One more step toward liberty had been taken.
Another great thing which happened during the reign of William IV. was the freeing of slaves.
For many years people had been in the habit of stealing black people from their homes in Africa, and selling them as slaves in the colonies. People had grown so used to it that they did not see how wicked and cruel this was. These poor black people were taken to market and sold like cattle, they were branded like cattle, and beaten like cattle. They had to work very hard, were paid no wages, and were often very cruelly treated. All masters, of course, were not cruel, some of them were even kind to their poor slaves, but still they had very unhappy lives. They had no rights whatever, their children might be taken from them and sold, sometimes even husbands and wives were sold to different masters, and never saw each other again. A master might treat his slaves as badly as he chose, and no one could punish him.
In the old, rough, wild days no one cared about the sufferings of these poor black people. They were only niggers, and made for work and suffering, and nothing was thought about it.
But, as time went on, people became less rough and more kind-hearted, and good men began to try to make people see the wickedness of slavery. For some years, a man called Wilberforce had been doing his best, and now he was joined by others, among whom was Macaulay, the father of the great writer. Mr. Macaulay had himself been a manager of a sugar plantation in the West Indies where slaves worked. But he gave up his post because he could not bear to see the misery and unhappiness of the slaves, and came home to try to do something for them.
It was not a very easy thing to do, because all the work on the sugar and coffee plantations in the West Indies was done by slaves. The planters said they would be ruined if the slaves were made free, as the black people would not work unless they were forced to do so. Besides, they had paid a great deal of money for their slaves, and it seemed unfair that they should be made to lose it all.
But, at last, all difficulties were smoothed away. The British Parliament said they would give twenty millions of money to the planters to make up for what they would lose in freeing their slaves, and, in the year 1834 A.D., most of them were set free.
Many other things were done during the reign of William IV., which you will find more interesting when you grow older. He died on 20th June 1837 A.D., having reigned seven years.
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William IV.—The Story of Two Peaceful Victories
G EORGE IV had only one child, a daughter, and she died some time before her father, so he was succeeded by his brother William, who was sixty-five years old when he came to the throne.
William was called the Sailor King because he had served in the navy. He was bluff and rough and good-natured, not at all like a King. He used to be fond of strolling about London with a walking-stick or an umbrella just like an ordinary man. But British people have always loved a sailor, so they were glad when William became King, and hoped that he would prove a better one than George IV.
That some of his people had not much reverence for him, is shown by one man who wrote of him, "He seems a kind-hearted, well-meaning, not stupid, bustling old fellow, and if he doesn't go mad, may make a very decent King." Later the same man called him, "One of the silliest old gentlemen in his dominions." If he had been left to himself, the "Well-meaning old fellow" would have been quite pleased to jog along without troubling about his kingdom or his duties. But that was not to be. The days of the clatter and jangle of steel armour were over, the roar and crackle of musket and cannon were silent for the time, but in the peace and silence men were thinking and planning and working for the good of the nation.
For hundreds of years the people of Britain had had the right of choosing men to send to Parliament to tell their troubles and their wrongs, and to help to make just laws for the ruling of the country. The whole nation, of course, cannot go to Westminster, for no building would be large enough to contain them all, and the talking would never be finished, and no laws would ever be made. So each county and each big town chooses a man who goes to Parliament to speak and vote in the name of those who send him.
That is what is intended, but at this time the reality was something quite different.
During the hundreds of years which had passed since it had been first arranged which towns should send members to Parliament, there had been many changes. Places which had once been large towns had for some reason or another become deserted. Where there had been houses, churches, shops, and crowded, busy streets, there was now perhaps only one lonely house, or perhaps only a deserted hillside. Yet that lonely house or deserted hillside continued to send a member to Parliament. On the other hand since factories had been built, great towns had sprung up, where a hundred years before there had been perhaps only a single cottage. But these great towns with all their hard-working people had no right to send a member to Parliament, and could have no voice in making the laws.
This seems very absurd. Nowadays, we think it would be quite easy for any sensible man to see that this state of affairs was wrong. But a hundred years ago many sensible people did not see it. They were pleased with things as they were, and very angry with those who tried to alter them.
But some people were quite determined they should be altered, and two men called Lord Grey and Lord John Russell, brought into Parliament what is called the Reform Bill. This Bill took the right of sending any one to Parliament away from the bare and lonely hillsides, and gave the right to the new and busy towns, so that the people should really be represented, that is, should have some one in Parliament to act and speak for them.
There was a long and fierce struggle before this Bill became law. You know that there are two Houses of Parliament, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. A bill to become law must be read in both Houses, and must be voted for by the greater number of the members in each. That is, more than half the members must vote for it. For instance, if there were only one hundred members, at least fifty-one must vote for a bill before it is said to have passed. Having passed both Houses, it must receive the consent of the King, before it can become law.
After a great deal of difficulty the Commons were made to consent to the Reform Bill, but the Lords did not want it, neither did the King, and again and again they refused consent.
The country, however, had become so determined about it that there were riots everywhere when it became known that the Lords would not pass the Bill. The people who had been quite ready to love their King began to hate him, and instead of cheering when he appeared, they hissed and groaned.
So bitter did the feeling become that the friends of the Bill feared there would be another revolution, and at last they forced the King to give his consent. The Lords followed, and the Bill became law.
One more step toward liberty had been taken.
Another great thing which happened during the reign of William IV. was the freeing of slaves.
For many years people had been in the habit of stealing black people from their homes in Africa, and selling them as slaves in the colonies. People had grown so used to it that they did not see how wicked and cruel this was. These poor black people were taken to market and sold like cattle, they were branded like cattle, and beaten like cattle. They had to work very hard, were paid no wages, and were often very cruelly treated. All masters, of course, were not cruel, some of them were even kind to their poor slaves, but still they had very unhappy lives. They had no rights whatever, their children might be taken from them and sold, sometimes even husbands and wives were sold to different masters, and never saw each other again. A master might treat his slaves as badly as he chose, and no one could punish him.
In the old, rough, wild days no one cared about the sufferings of these poor black people. They were only niggers, and made for work and suffering, and nothing was thought about it.
But, as time went on, people became less rough and more kind-hearted, and good men began to try to make people see the wickedness of slavery. For some years, a man called Wilberforce had been doing his best, and now he was joined by others, among whom was Macaulay, the father of the great writer. Mr. Macaulay had himself been a manager of a sugar plantation in the West Indies where slaves worked. But he gave up his post because he could not bear to see the misery and unhappiness of the slaves, and came home to try to do something for them.
It was not a very easy thing to do, because all the work on the sugar and coffee plantations in the West Indies was done by slaves. The planters said they would be ruined if the slaves were made free, as the black people would not work unless they were forced to do so. Besides, they had paid a great deal of money for their slaves, and it seemed unfair that they should be made to lose it all.
But, at last, all difficulties were smoothed away. The British Parliament said they would give twenty millions of money to the planters to make up for what they would lose in freeing their slaves, and, in the year 1834 A.D., most of them were set free.
Many other things were done during the reign of William IV., which you will find more interesting when you grow older. He died on 20th June 1837 A.D., having reigned seven years.
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Less television and more gathering around the dinner table prevents
Sitting down to a family meal more often and cutting down on television watching can help keep children from becoming overweight, according to a new University of Missouri-Columbia study.
After following 8,000 children from kindergarten to third grade, researchers concluded that kids who watched the most TV were at the greatest risk of being or becoming overweight. Children who ate fewer meals with their families also were at risk for becoming overweight.
"Other research has shown that children who eat meals with their families eat more healthy foods than children who don't eat as many meals with their families," said Sara Gable, associate professor of human development and family studies in the MU College of Human Environmental Studies. "I suspect there are other benefits of family meal times that protect children from developing some of the habits that could lead to weight problems."
The researchers grouped children into three categories to determine the factors associated with becoming overweight: children who were not overweight during kindergarten and first grade but were overweight by the third grade; children who became overweight during kindergarten and stayed that way through the third grade; children who were never overweight.
"Children who were never overweight between kindergarten and third grade were watching, as per parent reports, roughly two hours of television per day, or about 14 hours during a typical week," Gable said. "The children who were persistently overweight were watching about 16 hours of television per week."
Members of the persistently overweight groups also lived in neighborhoods that parents perceived as less safe for outdoor play.
"These results suggest that some overweight children have fewer options for active play when they are at home," Gable said.
Source: University of Missouri-Columbia
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Less television and more gathering around the dinner table prevents
Sitting down to a family meal more often and cutting down on television watching can help keep children from becoming overweight, according to a new University of Missouri-Columbia study.
After following 8,000 children from kindergarten to third grade, researchers concluded that kids who watched the most TV were at the greatest risk of being or becoming overweight. Children who ate fewer meals with their families also were at risk for becoming overweight.
"Other research has shown that children who eat meals with their families eat more healthy foods than children who don't eat as many meals with their families," said Sara Gable, associate professor of human development and family studies in the MU College of Human Environmental Studies. "I suspect there are other benefits of family meal times that protect children from developing some of the habits that could lead to weight problems."
The researchers grouped children into three categories to determine the factors associated with becoming overweight: children who were not overweight during kindergarten and first grade but were overweight by the third grade; children who became overweight during kindergarten and stayed that way through the third grade; children who were never overweight.
"Children who were never overweight between kindergarten and third grade were watching, as per parent reports, roughly two hours of television per day, or about 14 hours during a typical week," Gable said. "The children who were persistently overweight were watching about 16 hours of television per week."
Members of the persistently overweight groups also lived in neighborhoods that parents perceived as less safe for outdoor play.
"These results suggest that some overweight children have fewer options for active play when they are at home," Gable said.
Source: University of Missouri-Columbia
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Since the day the Pilgrims and Wampanoag Indians celebrated what we consider to be the first Thanksgiving in 1621, we’ve created an image of that occasion considerably at odds with what probably occurred. Here are some examples of how that long-ago celebration differed from our modern perception of it:
- Thanksgiving did not originate with the Pilgrims; it was an ancient historical custom they would have been familiar with from England. What the Pilgrims were celebrating was really not a “thanksgiving,” which to them was an occasion for religious piety and solemnity, but rather a harvest festival, full of (secular) revelry such as feasting, dancing, singing, sports, and games which the Pilgrims would have considered completely inappropriate activities for a religious observance.
- The only items we can be certain were on the table during that first Thanksgiving were venison and some type of wild fowl, as described by Edward Winslow in his 1621 Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth:
Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, among other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed upon our governor, and upon the captain, and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.
Although contemporary accounts of the first Thanksgiving mention “wild Turkies,” the Pilgrims and Wampanoag likely feasted on a variety of other fowl, such as geese, ducks, and partridges, and even birds we no longer commonly consider as food, such as cranes, swans, and eagles.
Corn on the cob was unlikely to have been on the menu, since Indian corn was primarily kept dried by that time of year and used for grinding up into meal. The pumpkin pie and cranberry sauce we’re familiar with were absent from the table as well, since the colonists had no supply of sugar, and wheat flour may have been scarce. (The celebrants might have made something like a pudding from boiled pumpkin sweetened with honey or syrup, however.) Potatoes (mashed or otherwise) were probably also absent, as they were not common in that area at the time. Although we don’t traditionally associate seafood with Thanksgiving, the colonists may have included cod, eel, clams, lobster, and even seal in their feast.
- The Pilgrims didn’t dress in black-and-white clothing with large buckles on their hats and shoes for Thanksgiving, as they are now commonly depicted. Pilgrims garbed themselves in such black and white clothing only on Sunday and other formal or solemn occasions, and large ornamental buckles didn’t come into fashion until much later in the 1600s (and were likely to have been eschewed by the Pilgrims as a frivolity in any case).
- Due to a poor harvest the next year (and an influx of settlers in subsequent years), the pilgrims never celebrated another Thanksgiving, and it remained an irregularly-observed holiday in America for more than two centuries. The first time all the states in the U.S. celebrated Thanksgiving together was in 1777, but that was a one-time only affair prompted by the Revolutionary War. Abraham Lincoln established Thanksgiving as a national holiday celebrated on the last Thursday in November in 1863, and Franklin Roosevelt moved it to the fourth Thursday in November in 1939.
- Varasdi, J. Allen. Myth Information.
- New York: Ballantine Books, 1989. ISBN 0-345-35985-2 (pp. 239-240).
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Since the day the Pilgrims and Wampanoag Indians celebrated what we consider to be the first Thanksgiving in 1621, we’ve created an image of that occasion considerably at odds with what probably occurred. Here are some examples of how that long-ago celebration differed from our modern perception of it:
- Thanksgiving did not originate with the Pilgrims; it was an ancient historical custom they would have been familiar with from England. What the Pilgrims were celebrating was really not a “thanksgiving,” which to them was an occasion for religious piety and solemnity, but rather a harvest festival, full of (secular) revelry such as feasting, dancing, singing, sports, and games which the Pilgrims would have considered completely inappropriate activities for a religious observance.
- The only items we can be certain were on the table during that first Thanksgiving were venison and some type of wild fowl, as described by Edward Winslow in his 1621 Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth:
Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, among other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed upon our governor, and upon the captain, and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.
Although contemporary accounts of the first Thanksgiving mention “wild Turkies,” the Pilgrims and Wampanoag likely feasted on a variety of other fowl, such as geese, ducks, and partridges, and even birds we no longer commonly consider as food, such as cranes, swans, and eagles.
Corn on the cob was unlikely to have been on the menu, since Indian corn was primarily kept dried by that time of year and used for grinding up into meal. The pumpkin pie and cranberry sauce we’re familiar with were absent from the table as well, since the colonists had no supply of sugar, and wheat flour may have been scarce. (The celebrants might have made something like a pudding from boiled pumpkin sweetened with honey or syrup, however.) Potatoes (mashed or otherwise) were probably also absent, as they were not common in that area at the time. Although we don’t traditionally associate seafood with Thanksgiving, the colonists may have included cod, eel, clams, lobster, and even seal in their feast.
- The Pilgrims didn’t dress in black-and-white clothing with large buckles on their hats and shoes for Thanksgiving, as they are now commonly depicted. Pilgrims garbed themselves in such black and white clothing only on Sunday and other formal or solemn occasions, and large ornamental buckles didn’t come into fashion until much later in the 1600s (and were likely to have been eschewed by the Pilgrims as a frivolity in any case).
- Due to a poor harvest the next year (and an influx of settlers in subsequent years), the pilgrims never celebrated another Thanksgiving, and it remained an irregularly-observed holiday in America for more than two centuries. The first time all the states in the U.S. celebrated Thanksgiving together was in 1777, but that was a one-time only affair prompted by the Revolutionary War. Abraham Lincoln established Thanksgiving as a national holiday celebrated on the last Thursday in November in 1863, and Franklin Roosevelt moved it to the fourth Thursday in November in 1939.
- Varasdi, J. Allen. Myth Information.
- New York: Ballantine Books, 1989. ISBN 0-345-35985-2 (pp. 239-240).
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ENGLISH
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What is an example of free indirect discourse in Dubliners?
Free indirect discourse is when the point of view slides from third-person omniscient narration to inside the head of a particular person in a story without indicating the change. Jane Austen is the writer most famous for using this technique.
Though James Joyce is most associated with stream-of-conscious, which attempts to mimic capturing a person's thoughts as they flow through his or her mind, Joyce also uses free indirect discourse in his story "The Dead" in Dubliners. In the passage below, Joyce slides from omniscient narration to Gabriel's thoughts.
Gabriel's eyes, irritated by the floor, which glittered with beeswax under the heavy chandelier, wandered to the wall above the piano. A picture of the balcony scene in Romeo and Juliet hung there and beside it was a picture of the two murdered princes in the Tower which Aunt Julia had worked in red, blue, and brown wools when she was a girl. Probably in the school they had gone to as girls that kind of work had been taught for one year. His mother had worked for him as a birthday present a waistcoat of purple tabinet, with little foxes' heads upon it, lined with brown satin and having round mulberry buttons.
First, we are told that Gabriel's eyes are irritated, and we can watch him from afar, as if he is being filmed, as his eyes wander to the wall. In the first half of the next sentence we are also outside of his head, watching with him as he looks at the Romeo and Juliet balcony scene. So far, we are viewing him from the outside. Then we slip into his thoughts as he looks at the embroidered pictures hanging on the wall. It is the thought flowing through his mind that the picture of the princes had probably been worked by Aunt Julia as a girl, and that idea leads him to think of his mother. If this were a movie, the thoughts in his head would be filmed as a flashback, perhaps in a hazier light to indicate the shift.
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What is an example of free indirect discourse in Dubliners?
Free indirect discourse is when the point of view slides from third-person omniscient narration to inside the head of a particular person in a story without indicating the change. Jane Austen is the writer most famous for using this technique.
Though James Joyce is most associated with stream-of-conscious, which attempts to mimic capturing a person's thoughts as they flow through his or her mind, Joyce also uses free indirect discourse in his story "The Dead" in Dubliners. In the passage below, Joyce slides from omniscient narration to Gabriel's thoughts.
Gabriel's eyes, irritated by the floor, which glittered with beeswax under the heavy chandelier, wandered to the wall above the piano. A picture of the balcony scene in Romeo and Juliet hung there and beside it was a picture of the two murdered princes in the Tower which Aunt Julia had worked in red, blue, and brown wools when she was a girl. Probably in the school they had gone to as girls that kind of work had been taught for one year. His mother had worked for him as a birthday present a waistcoat of purple tabinet, with little foxes' heads upon it, lined with brown satin and having round mulberry buttons.
First, we are told that Gabriel's eyes are irritated, and we can watch him from afar, as if he is being filmed, as his eyes wander to the wall. In the first half of the next sentence we are also outside of his head, watching with him as he looks at the Romeo and Juliet balcony scene. So far, we are viewing him from the outside. Then we slip into his thoughts as he looks at the embroidered pictures hanging on the wall. It is the thought flowing through his mind that the picture of the princes had probably been worked by Aunt Julia as a girl, and that idea leads him to think of his mother. If this were a movie, the thoughts in his head would be filmed as a flashback, perhaps in a hazier light to indicate the shift.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
| 422
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ENGLISH
| 1
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WWI was the bloodiest war the world had ever seen. Snipers, artillery and machine guns made passing the enemy line difficult, and military leaders on both sides struggled to devise new tactics and strategies to deal with this kind of warfare. Many times, soldiers were simply sent “over the top” to charge the enemy trenches head-on in attacks that cost many lives with no significant gain. As a result, the Allies were struggling. In 1918, Germany started launching a series of major offenses that pushed the Allied lines back to within 70 kilometers of Paris. This was to be Germany’s last major effort to win the war because they had overextended their army. After years of war, their resources of men and supplies were getting low. At the same time, the Allied forces were being reinforced by American troops with the entry of the United States into the war. All of these circumstances combined allowed the Allies to regroup and begin making their own major push to end the war. Their efforts and successes would soon be known as The Hundred Days.
Canada’s success through battles such as Vimy Ridge and Passchendaele gave Canadian’s the reputation of the best attacking troops on the Western Front. Their abilities were so well-known that even their presence on a section of the front would warn the enemy that an attack was coming. This meant that secrecy was of utmost importance while moving Canadian troops in preparation for the attacks. Before a crucial fight in France that would mark the beginning of The Hundred Days, Canadian troops were sent Belgium in an attempt to trick the Germans into thinking that a major attack would occur their. This tactic was successful, and the Germans were completely caught off guard when the Canadians secretly rushed back to the Amiens sector for the real attack.
On August 8th, Canada led an offensive that advanced the Western Front twenty kilometers in just three days. This attack was launched without a long preliminary artillery bombardment as was usually done, which typically warned the enemy that an attack was coming, and the Germans were caught completely offguard. This breakthrough crushed enemy morale, with the Geman high commander at the time calling it “the black day of the Geman Army”. This victory and the hopes of the war ending soon motivated the Allies to continue their attack. The Canadian’s were moved to Arras with the goal of breaking the Hindenburg Line, the enemy’s main defense line at that time. After a week of fighting against some of Germany’s finest troops, in terrain that gave the enemy the advantage, the Canadians broke the Drocourt-Quéant Line in front of the Hindenburg Line by Sept. 2.
The next step was the Canal Du Nord, which formed part of the main Hindenburg Line. The Canal was only partially completed, which made it a difficult place to attack. But Canadian Corps Commander Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie and his men, along with a British division crossed a 2500 meter wide dry part of the canal. However, this spot was a bottleneck that could cause allied troops and equipment to bunch up and become easy targets. To cover the advance, Currie release the heaviest single-day bombardment of the entire war. The Canadians broke three lines of German defense and captured Bourlon Wood. With the help of other successes along the British front, the Hindenburg line was breached.
After further heavy fighting, Canadians helped capture the town of Cambrai and by October 11 the Corps had reached the Canal de la Sensée. This was the last action taken by the Corps as a whole but the individual Canadian divisions continued to fight, overcoming stiff German resistance and helping capture Mont Houy and Valenciennes by the beginning of November. The armistice was finally signed on November 11, 1918. Canadians fought to the very end with the war’s last Canadian combat death—Private George Lawrence Price—happening just two minutes before the fighting officially ended. The war was finally over.
The Canadian army was quite unique in several respects when compared to other countries’ troops involved in the first world war. For example, it was an all volunteer force.This meant that they had a very different profile to the industrialized ‘slum dwellers’ of Manchester or the estate workers of Germany. Canadians were “unaccustomed to showing respect and deference to anyone who could not stand firmly on their own two feet without the support of wealth or title.” (John J. Pershing). The Canadian troops strongly represented Canadian identity at the time. They were a young country full of misfits that immigrated from countries where they felt they couldn’t express themselves. Despite their ‘rag-tag’ nature, the Canadian troops were extremely successful throughout the world war. According to Arther Currie, the Canadian troops “[showed] that even in trench warfare it is possible to mystify and mislead the enemy”. The confidence that Canada gained through their successes in the World War would significantly impact their national identity, as it proved that Canadians were truly a force to be reckoned with.
All of the Canadians involved in the attacks during The Hundred Days were proud to represent their country and portray their national identity. When Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie was questioned about Canada’s role in the war, he replied: “I am a good enough Canadian to believe […] that Canadians are best served by Canadians.”. Furthermore, Stephan Leacock wrote that despite the growing losses and increasing intensity of the war, “ The spirit of Canada [rose] to meet the danger as the sea bird rises before the blackening storm.” This shows that although the war was full of tragedy and loss, the Canadian’s never gave up hope and continued to fight for the safety of their country and the rest of the world.
Between August 8 and November 11, more than 100,000 Canadians advanced 130 kilometres and captured approximately 32,000 prisoners and nearly 3,800 artillery pieces, machine guns and mortars. The importance of Canadian troops within the first world war significantly increased their social and political autonomy and independence. Although Canadians fought as allies of the British, Canada soon became well known for their own abilities. “By 1918, the self-governing colony that had trusted it’s fate to British statecraft was not only committed to speaking with it’s own voice in the world, it had won on the battlefield the right to be heard.” (Morton and Granatstein, 1989). Canada’s accomplishments had earned it a newfound respect, both at home and around the world, and a recognition as an independent country. An example of this is represented through Canada’s separate signature on the Treaty of Versailles that formally ended the First World War. The war also served as an example of the country’s commitment to defend peace and freedom, a value that they would continue to demonstrate in the years to come.
That being said, the Canadian triumphs during The Hundred Days came at a high price. More than 6,800 Canadians and Newfoundlanders were killed and approximately 39,000 wounded during the last three months of fighting. By the end of the First World War, Canada, which at the time was a country of less than eight million citizens, would see more than 650,000 men and women serve in uniform. The conflict took a great toll, with more than 66,000 Canadians and Newfoundlanders dying and 170,000 being wounded. The sacrifices and achievements of those who gave so much in the effort to restore peace and freedom are not forgotten.
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WWI was the bloodiest war the world had ever seen. Snipers, artillery and machine guns made passing the enemy line difficult, and military leaders on both sides struggled to devise new tactics and strategies to deal with this kind of warfare. Many times, soldiers were simply sent “over the top” to charge the enemy trenches head-on in attacks that cost many lives with no significant gain. As a result, the Allies were struggling. In 1918, Germany started launching a series of major offenses that pushed the Allied lines back to within 70 kilometers of Paris. This was to be Germany’s last major effort to win the war because they had overextended their army. After years of war, their resources of men and supplies were getting low. At the same time, the Allied forces were being reinforced by American troops with the entry of the United States into the war. All of these circumstances combined allowed the Allies to regroup and begin making their own major push to end the war. Their efforts and successes would soon be known as The Hundred Days.
Canada’s success through battles such as Vimy Ridge and Passchendaele gave Canadian’s the reputation of the best attacking troops on the Western Front. Their abilities were so well-known that even their presence on a section of the front would warn the enemy that an attack was coming. This meant that secrecy was of utmost importance while moving Canadian troops in preparation for the attacks. Before a crucial fight in France that would mark the beginning of The Hundred Days, Canadian troops were sent Belgium in an attempt to trick the Germans into thinking that a major attack would occur their. This tactic was successful, and the Germans were completely caught off guard when the Canadians secretly rushed back to the Amiens sector for the real attack.
On August 8th, Canada led an offensive that advanced the Western Front twenty kilometers in just three days. This attack was launched without a long preliminary artillery bombardment as was usually done, which typically warned the enemy that an attack was coming, and the Germans were caught completely offguard. This breakthrough crushed enemy morale, with the Geman high commander at the time calling it “the black day of the Geman Army”. This victory and the hopes of the war ending soon motivated the Allies to continue their attack. The Canadian’s were moved to Arras with the goal of breaking the Hindenburg Line, the enemy’s main defense line at that time. After a week of fighting against some of Germany’s finest troops, in terrain that gave the enemy the advantage, the Canadians broke the Drocourt-Quéant Line in front of the Hindenburg Line by Sept. 2.
The next step was the Canal Du Nord, which formed part of the main Hindenburg Line. The Canal was only partially completed, which made it a difficult place to attack. But Canadian Corps Commander Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie and his men, along with a British division crossed a 2500 meter wide dry part of the canal. However, this spot was a bottleneck that could cause allied troops and equipment to bunch up and become easy targets. To cover the advance, Currie release the heaviest single-day bombardment of the entire war. The Canadians broke three lines of German defense and captured Bourlon Wood. With the help of other successes along the British front, the Hindenburg line was breached.
After further heavy fighting, Canadians helped capture the town of Cambrai and by October 11 the Corps had reached the Canal de la Sensée. This was the last action taken by the Corps as a whole but the individual Canadian divisions continued to fight, overcoming stiff German resistance and helping capture Mont Houy and Valenciennes by the beginning of November. The armistice was finally signed on November 11, 1918. Canadians fought to the very end with the war’s last Canadian combat death—Private George Lawrence Price—happening just two minutes before the fighting officially ended. The war was finally over.
The Canadian army was quite unique in several respects when compared to other countries’ troops involved in the first world war. For example, it was an all volunteer force.This meant that they had a very different profile to the industrialized ‘slum dwellers’ of Manchester or the estate workers of Germany. Canadians were “unaccustomed to showing respect and deference to anyone who could not stand firmly on their own two feet without the support of wealth or title.” (John J. Pershing). The Canadian troops strongly represented Canadian identity at the time. They were a young country full of misfits that immigrated from countries where they felt they couldn’t express themselves. Despite their ‘rag-tag’ nature, the Canadian troops were extremely successful throughout the world war. According to Arther Currie, the Canadian troops “[showed] that even in trench warfare it is possible to mystify and mislead the enemy”. The confidence that Canada gained through their successes in the World War would significantly impact their national identity, as it proved that Canadians were truly a force to be reckoned with.
All of the Canadians involved in the attacks during The Hundred Days were proud to represent their country and portray their national identity. When Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie was questioned about Canada’s role in the war, he replied: “I am a good enough Canadian to believe […] that Canadians are best served by Canadians.”. Furthermore, Stephan Leacock wrote that despite the growing losses and increasing intensity of the war, “ The spirit of Canada [rose] to meet the danger as the sea bird rises before the blackening storm.” This shows that although the war was full of tragedy and loss, the Canadian’s never gave up hope and continued to fight for the safety of their country and the rest of the world.
Between August 8 and November 11, more than 100,000 Canadians advanced 130 kilometres and captured approximately 32,000 prisoners and nearly 3,800 artillery pieces, machine guns and mortars. The importance of Canadian troops within the first world war significantly increased their social and political autonomy and independence. Although Canadians fought as allies of the British, Canada soon became well known for their own abilities. “By 1918, the self-governing colony that had trusted it’s fate to British statecraft was not only committed to speaking with it’s own voice in the world, it had won on the battlefield the right to be heard.” (Morton and Granatstein, 1989). Canada’s accomplishments had earned it a newfound respect, both at home and around the world, and a recognition as an independent country. An example of this is represented through Canada’s separate signature on the Treaty of Versailles that formally ended the First World War. The war also served as an example of the country’s commitment to defend peace and freedom, a value that they would continue to demonstrate in the years to come.
That being said, the Canadian triumphs during The Hundred Days came at a high price. More than 6,800 Canadians and Newfoundlanders were killed and approximately 39,000 wounded during the last three months of fighting. By the end of the First World War, Canada, which at the time was a country of less than eight million citizens, would see more than 650,000 men and women serve in uniform. The conflict took a great toll, with more than 66,000 Canadians and Newfoundlanders dying and 170,000 being wounded. The sacrifices and achievements of those who gave so much in the effort to restore peace and freedom are not forgotten.
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In order to end WWII President Truman believed it was necessary to destroy an entire residential Japanese city with what was the most horrific weapon of its time, the atomic bomb. Near the end of WWII almost all countries had stopped fighting and the allies were in victory, but the war between Japan and the U.S. was yet to be finished. By this time Japan and the U.S. were very tired of fighting and both countries were looking for away to end the war. The U.S. had the upper hand on the war, however, for we were attacking and the Japanese were only desperately defending and Japan was rapidly loosing. The U.S. had successfully bombed over 60 cities with conventional bombs and had a very successful sea blockade working against the Japanese. At this time the Japanese knew they were hopelessly loosing the war.
They did, however, defend their country the best they could, predicting U.S. invasions and stationing large amounts of troops in these spots. Even though the U.S. saw the Japanese weakness, something drove the country to want more, an immediate end and an absolute victory. Instead of waiting out the war, which historians say was days from being over any way, the U.S. went ahead and dropped a bomb known as Little Boy on the residential city of Hiroshima. Little Boy was the world's first atomic bomb to be used in a battle and it had devastating effects. The bomb killed more than 200,000 people and it leveled the city of Hiroshima in seconds. As if using a weapon of such power and destruction once was not enough to make Japan surrender, the U.S. again dropped an atomic bomb on a residential area in Japan known as Nagasaki.
This bomb killed less people due to a less dense area, but never the less it killed 79,000 Japanese. The Japanese Government saw the terrible devastation and with in five days they surrendered to the U.S. America proved victorious, but at what cost Was atomic bombing really necessary to achieve these results I, along with many others say no, the U.S. absolutely did not need to drop even one atomic bomb on Japan in order for them to surrender. In addition to the atomic bomb many other, more reasonable, options were created in order to make Japan surrender. To better explain, it was suggested that officials from the Japanese government be invited to the U.S. to witness a testing of the atomic bomb in an area with no residency.
This way the Japanese would witness the power we had and surrender knowing that they could never defend against such a horrific weapon. Another alternative was to carry out with the plan created to end the war before the U.S. obtained atomic weapons. This plan was called operation downfall and consisted of one massive blow to the Japanese army, causing it to severely weaken with being able to continue. After this happened the Japanese would naturally have to surrender and it would have had less than an 1/8 of the casualties one of the atomic bombs had. This operation was of coarse dismissed with the development of the atomic bomb, which would end the war much quicker but at an enormously higher price. All these ideas we legitimate alternatives for dropping the atomic bomb, but they were all dismissed for one excuse or another.
The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not at all necessary. The Japanese were more or less already beaten and many other alternatives existed instead of dropping the bomb. It was entirely Americas fault for slaughtering over 279,000 people in such a cruel way and I only hope that the world has learned from our mistakes; no other atomic weapon should ever again be used against the human population.
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In order to end WWII President Truman believed it was necessary to destroy an entire residential Japanese city with what was the most horrific weapon of its time, the atomic bomb. Near the end of WWII almost all countries had stopped fighting and the allies were in victory, but the war between Japan and the U.S. was yet to be finished. By this time Japan and the U.S. were very tired of fighting and both countries were looking for away to end the war. The U.S. had the upper hand on the war, however, for we were attacking and the Japanese were only desperately defending and Japan was rapidly loosing. The U.S. had successfully bombed over 60 cities with conventional bombs and had a very successful sea blockade working against the Japanese. At this time the Japanese knew they were hopelessly loosing the war.
They did, however, defend their country the best they could, predicting U.S. invasions and stationing large amounts of troops in these spots. Even though the U.S. saw the Japanese weakness, something drove the country to want more, an immediate end and an absolute victory. Instead of waiting out the war, which historians say was days from being over any way, the U.S. went ahead and dropped a bomb known as Little Boy on the residential city of Hiroshima. Little Boy was the world's first atomic bomb to be used in a battle and it had devastating effects. The bomb killed more than 200,000 people and it leveled the city of Hiroshima in seconds. As if using a weapon of such power and destruction once was not enough to make Japan surrender, the U.S. again dropped an atomic bomb on a residential area in Japan known as Nagasaki.
This bomb killed less people due to a less dense area, but never the less it killed 79,000 Japanese. The Japanese Government saw the terrible devastation and with in five days they surrendered to the U.S. America proved victorious, but at what cost Was atomic bombing really necessary to achieve these results I, along with many others say no, the U.S. absolutely did not need to drop even one atomic bomb on Japan in order for them to surrender. In addition to the atomic bomb many other, more reasonable, options were created in order to make Japan surrender. To better explain, it was suggested that officials from the Japanese government be invited to the U.S. to witness a testing of the atomic bomb in an area with no residency.
This way the Japanese would witness the power we had and surrender knowing that they could never defend against such a horrific weapon. Another alternative was to carry out with the plan created to end the war before the U.S. obtained atomic weapons. This plan was called operation downfall and consisted of one massive blow to the Japanese army, causing it to severely weaken with being able to continue. After this happened the Japanese would naturally have to surrender and it would have had less than an 1/8 of the casualties one of the atomic bombs had. This operation was of coarse dismissed with the development of the atomic bomb, which would end the war much quicker but at an enormously higher price. All these ideas we legitimate alternatives for dropping the atomic bomb, but they were all dismissed for one excuse or another.
The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not at all necessary. The Japanese were more or less already beaten and many other alternatives existed instead of dropping the bomb. It was entirely Americas fault for slaughtering over 279,000 people in such a cruel way and I only hope that the world has learned from our mistakes; no other atomic weapon should ever again be used against the human population.
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There have been disagreements among various scholars on the origin of all elements in the periodic table starting from hydrogen to uranium with different theories being developed. It is believed that the universe was unchanging, eternal, simple consisting of a single galaxy with few million stars 100 years ago. Today, the universe has changed a lot whereby there are more than 100 billion galaxies with each having more than 100 billion stars. Many features have emerged guided by the laws of physics over a period of more than a billion years.
The big bang theory is one of the theories that attempt to explain the origin of elements in the universe. It is worth to note that about 73 percent of the mass in the universe is made up of hydrogen while helium represents about 25 percent. The abundance of more massive elements (with A>4) is quite low though they form the largest part of our bodies and the earth. Low mass elements which include helium and hydrogen were produced in a hot and dense condition during the birth of the universe. The birth, life as well as death of a star are explained in terms of nuclear reactions. All chemical elements which make up the matter found on the universe were created during these reactions.
The universe, approximately 15 billion years ago began as an extremely dense and hot environment according to the big bang theory. After its formation, it began to cool and expand. High energy density yielded particles and antiparticles and as they collided with each other, annihilation occurred. As cooling was taking place in the universe, average energy of radiation reduced. It is at this point when particle creation occurred until the temperatures were cool enough. After the cooling of the universe, the creation of elements stopped as it become energetically impossible. Some elements were formed in the hot and dense condition such as hydrogen and helium while others were formed in a cooler and less dense condition like Uranium.
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There have been disagreements among various scholars on the origin of all elements in the periodic table starting from hydrogen to uranium with different theories being developed. It is believed that the universe was unchanging, eternal, simple consisting of a single galaxy with few million stars 100 years ago. Today, the universe has changed a lot whereby there are more than 100 billion galaxies with each having more than 100 billion stars. Many features have emerged guided by the laws of physics over a period of more than a billion years.
The big bang theory is one of the theories that attempt to explain the origin of elements in the universe. It is worth to note that about 73 percent of the mass in the universe is made up of hydrogen while helium represents about 25 percent. The abundance of more massive elements (with A>4) is quite low though they form the largest part of our bodies and the earth. Low mass elements which include helium and hydrogen were produced in a hot and dense condition during the birth of the universe. The birth, life as well as death of a star are explained in terms of nuclear reactions. All chemical elements which make up the matter found on the universe were created during these reactions.
The universe, approximately 15 billion years ago began as an extremely dense and hot environment according to the big bang theory. After its formation, it began to cool and expand. High energy density yielded particles and antiparticles and as they collided with each other, annihilation occurred. As cooling was taking place in the universe, average energy of radiation reduced. It is at this point when particle creation occurred until the temperatures were cool enough. After the cooling of the universe, the creation of elements stopped as it become energetically impossible. Some elements were formed in the hot and dense condition such as hydrogen and helium while others were formed in a cooler and less dense condition like Uranium.
| 386
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Jiang Yan was a poet from the Southern Dynasty (A.D. 420–581). He was recognized as a master of “fu” and was an important literary figure of his time.
Fu is rhapsody or prose poetry, which is a genre of traditional Chinese literature. It was a traditional style of writing, the product something between a poem and an essay.
When Jiang was young, he was brilliant in the study of literature. His poems and his rhapsodic texts were outstanding.
One of his most famous rhapsodies was “Li Se Fu,” which described the beauty and elegance of a lady. In one paragraph, Jiang wrote:
“Upon first glance at the beautiful lady, she seems like a red lotus in a pool of still water. When she moves, her elegant gestures are like the gorgeous clouds flying from the cliffs. She is bright with colors, beautiful and brilliant.”
This rhapsody inspired the idiom 五光十色 (wǔ guāng shí sè), which literally means “five lights and ten colors” and is often translated as “bright with colors” or “colorful.”
The idiom is used to describe something that is, at once, beautiful, colorful, and bright.
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] | 1
|
Jiang Yan was a poet from the Southern Dynasty (A.D. 420–581). He was recognized as a master of “fu” and was an important literary figure of his time.
Fu is rhapsody or prose poetry, which is a genre of traditional Chinese literature. It was a traditional style of writing, the product something between a poem and an essay.
When Jiang was young, he was brilliant in the study of literature. His poems and his rhapsodic texts were outstanding.
One of his most famous rhapsodies was “Li Se Fu,” which described the beauty and elegance of a lady. In one paragraph, Jiang wrote:
“Upon first glance at the beautiful lady, she seems like a red lotus in a pool of still water. When she moves, her elegant gestures are like the gorgeous clouds flying from the cliffs. She is bright with colors, beautiful and brilliant.”
This rhapsody inspired the idiom 五光十色 (wǔ guāng shí sè), which literally means “five lights and ten colors” and is often translated as “bright with colors” or “colorful.”
The idiom is used to describe something that is, at once, beautiful, colorful, and bright.
| 255
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ENGLISH
| 1
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CLEVELAND, Ohio -- Hundreds of residents Monday honored the 86 black men buried in Woodland Cemetery who answered President Abraham Lincoln's call to save the Union.
"As we recognize soldiers of all wars today, we need to realize what these men went through," said Paul LaRue, a teacher from southern Ohio and a national expert on the state's black Civil War veterans.
His comments came during a Memorial Day service at the cemetery honoring a group of soldiers whose place in history has long been overshadowed or forgotten.
LaRue said black soldiers were not initially recruited to fight against the South. They were told the war was a white man's to fight. But as the war dragged on, the North realized its need for more soldiers.
And Cleveland became a prime recruiting stop.
"The North was in trouble, and it needed manpower," LaRue said.
In the spring of 1863, black teenagers and men from Cleveland joined a Massachusetts regiment that led an attack at Fort Wagner, S.C., a battle where black soldiers stood out for their heroism, including a shoemaker from Cleveland named Corp. Henry Peal, who was honored for his bravery.
LaRue said Peal's valiant work and that of other black soldiers was depicted in the movie "Glory," which starred Denzel Washington and Morgan Freeman.
He said black soldiers initially were scorned. After the war, their families struggled financially. Ohio had about 5,000 black soldiers in the war. Overall, there were about 200,000 black soldiers and sailors, or 10 percent of union forces.
LaRue cited Frederick Douglass' famous speech in which the abolitionist stressed that black soldiers must strike a blow to a government that forced slavery.
About 1,400 Civil War veterans are buried in Woodland, including the 86 who served in what was known as the U.S. Colored Troops, said Michelle Day, president of the nonprofit Woodland Cemetery Foundation.
Many of those buried at Woodland lack headstones, but Day said volunteer William Stark is working to get the paperwork needed for headstones from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.
"They've been forgotten," LaRue said after the ceremony. "These are men in our cemeteries. A shoemaker from Cleveland or a farmer from southern Ohio. They were part of our communities. They lived in our neighborhoods."
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CLEVELAND, Ohio -- Hundreds of residents Monday honored the 86 black men buried in Woodland Cemetery who answered President Abraham Lincoln's call to save the Union.
"As we recognize soldiers of all wars today, we need to realize what these men went through," said Paul LaRue, a teacher from southern Ohio and a national expert on the state's black Civil War veterans.
His comments came during a Memorial Day service at the cemetery honoring a group of soldiers whose place in history has long been overshadowed or forgotten.
LaRue said black soldiers were not initially recruited to fight against the South. They were told the war was a white man's to fight. But as the war dragged on, the North realized its need for more soldiers.
And Cleveland became a prime recruiting stop.
"The North was in trouble, and it needed manpower," LaRue said.
In the spring of 1863, black teenagers and men from Cleveland joined a Massachusetts regiment that led an attack at Fort Wagner, S.C., a battle where black soldiers stood out for their heroism, including a shoemaker from Cleveland named Corp. Henry Peal, who was honored for his bravery.
LaRue said Peal's valiant work and that of other black soldiers was depicted in the movie "Glory," which starred Denzel Washington and Morgan Freeman.
He said black soldiers initially were scorned. After the war, their families struggled financially. Ohio had about 5,000 black soldiers in the war. Overall, there were about 200,000 black soldiers and sailors, or 10 percent of union forces.
LaRue cited Frederick Douglass' famous speech in which the abolitionist stressed that black soldiers must strike a blow to a government that forced slavery.
About 1,400 Civil War veterans are buried in Woodland, including the 86 who served in what was known as the U.S. Colored Troops, said Michelle Day, president of the nonprofit Woodland Cemetery Foundation.
Many of those buried at Woodland lack headstones, but Day said volunteer William Stark is working to get the paperwork needed for headstones from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.
"They've been forgotten," LaRue said after the ceremony. "These are men in our cemeteries. A shoemaker from Cleveland or a farmer from southern Ohio. They were part of our communities. They lived in our neighborhoods."
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Frank Lloyd Wright
“ The greatest artist this country has ever produced seems to at last be coming into his own. America’s other great artists—our painters, sculptors, composers—don’t really rank with the tops of all time. They’re not Rembrandt or Michelangelo or Beethoven. Wright alone has that standing. ” (Robert Campbell) One of America’s most influential and imaginative architects was Frank Lloyd Wright. Throughout his 70 year career, Wright has not only designed nearly a thousand structures, but he has explored the ideas of living space, landscape, and the relationship between architecture and community.
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Frank Lloyd Wright left behind a legacy of beautiful houses and buildings, an American style of architecture, and an example of what it means to live life based on the way things should be, not the way they are. He created some of the most monumental and intimate spaces in America. He designed everything: banks and resorts, office buildings and churches, a filling station and a synagogue, a beer garden and an art museum. Frank Lloyd Wright’s life truly was a work of art.
Wright was born on June 8, 1867, in Richland Center, Wisconsin. His early influences include his clergyman father’s playing of Bach and Beethoven and his mother’s gift of geometric blocks. Growing up, Wright spent much of his summers at a farm owned by his uncles; here, his favorite pastime was building forts out of hay and mud. In 1882, at the age of 15, he entered the University of Wisconsin as a special student, studying engineering because the school had no course in architecture.
Wright left Madison in 1887 to work as a draftsman in Chicago. Wright worked for several architectural offices until he finally found a job with the most skillful architect of the Mid-West, Louis Sullivan, soon becoming Sullivan’s chief assistant. Wright was assigned most of the firm’s designing of houses, and to pay his many debts he designed for private clients in his spare time. Sullivan disapproved, and Wright set up his own office, which was located in Oak Park.
Just before his twenty-second birthday, in 1889, Wright married Catherine Lee Tobin, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, and together with Sullivan as his former employer, she gave him the cultural background he lacked; she gave him social polish as well. Now, as an independent architect, Wright became the leader of a style known as the Prairie School, which is described as houses with low-pitched roofs and extended lines that blend into the landscape. Between the year of 1903-1906, Wright began using more modern materials, such as concrete.
In 1904, he designed the strong, practical Larkin building in Buffalo, New York. In 1905, Wright left the United States for the first time to travel to Japan for three months. In 1911, feeling too restricted by building primarily suburban structures, Wright began the construction of his new home and studio, located on his uncle’s Wisconsin farm, called Taliesin (Welsh for ‘shining brow’). “No house should ever be on a hill or on anything. It should be of the hill. Belonging to it.
Hill and house should live together each the happier for the other. ” (Frank Lloyd Wright, pg. 96) In 1909, the first phase of Wright’s career ended sadly, when he left his lover, Mamah Borthwick Chaney, the wife of a former client, and his five children alone at Taliesin. That day, a crazed servant murdered Mrs. Chaney and six others, also setting a fire that destroyed much of Taliesin. This incident caused a setback in his career for a short period of time. In 1916, Wright traveled back to Japan where he would spend much of the next six years.
He designed the Imperial Hotel, in Tokyo, floating the structure on an underlying sea of mud. Frank Lloyd Wright returned to the United States in 1922, he was in his mid-50’s, and facing one of the most difficult times in his life. Having long been separated from his first wife, Catherine Lee Tobin, Wright divorced her in 1922; the following year, he would enter into a brief, disastrous marriage with Miriam Noel. Meanwhile, he found himself with little work and few clients.
In 1923, he suffered the death of his mother, and in 1924, the death of his former employer and mentor, Louis Sullivan died, and Miriam left him. In the years between the separation and the final divorce, her behavior became increasingly erratic and disturbed; her accusations cause a lot of bad publicity for Wright, even leading to his brief arrest in 1926 on charges so violating the Mann Act. (The charges were related to his association with a new lover, Olgivanna Milanoff, who was threatened with deportation from the United States.
Another fire destroyed the Taliesin living quarters in 1925 (though without the loss of lives that had marked the earlier destruction in 1914). Wright’s financial problems were so severe that his creditors foreclosed on Taliesin in 1926 and evicted him from his home in 1927. “Architecture is that great living creative spirit which from generation, to generation, from age, to age, proceeds, persists, creates, according to the nature of man, and his circumstances they change. That is architecture. ” (Frank Lloyd Wright pg. 106)
Despite these troubles, Wright worked strenuously throughout the decade. In August 1928, he married Olgivanna Milanoff, who was to provide extraordinary support for the rest of his life. Later, in 1928; he regained possession of Taliesin. Wright had begun to work on An Autobiography in 1928; the publication of its first version in 1932, along with his other writings, revealed a clear and complex theory of architecture. In October 1932, a little more than ten years after his return from Japan, Wright founded a fellowship for young architects at Taliesin.
It was to be an ideal community, emphasizing work and study that corresponded with Wright’s work of that time. Designs for new commissions showed his creative powers to be as strong as ever, and Wright entered the most productive phase of his career, with designs for Broadacre City, “Fallingwater,” the S. C. Johnson and Son Administration Building and the Usonian house. The ideas that Wright conceived between 1922 1932 formed the basis for much of his later work. Whenever Wright faced personal dilemmas, he always seemed to emerge with wonderful new architecture.
From 1936 to the end of his life, Frank Lloyd Wright produced work constantly. Within those years, Wright purchased 800 acres of land in Arizona to build Taliesin West, he received the gold medal of the American Institute of Architecture, finished the final plan of the Guggenheim Museum, was awarded and honorary doctorate from Yale University, and founded the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation. Frank Lloyd Wright died on April 9, 1959, in Phoenix Arizona, during one of the greatest stages of his lifetime.
Throughout his lifetime, Frank Lloyd Wright not only changed many of the “design rules” of his time, but he also changed the face of architecture all over the world. His passion for this craft was so strong that it was visible in all of his work, and still lives on today. “… having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live. Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all time. ” (Frank Lloyd Wright pg. 203) Frank Lloyd Wright will forever be remembered as one of the greatest artists to have lived.
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|
Frank Lloyd Wright
“ The greatest artist this country has ever produced seems to at last be coming into his own. America’s other great artists—our painters, sculptors, composers—don’t really rank with the tops of all time. They’re not Rembrandt or Michelangelo or Beethoven. Wright alone has that standing. ” (Robert Campbell) One of America’s most influential and imaginative architects was Frank Lloyd Wright. Throughout his 70 year career, Wright has not only designed nearly a thousand structures, but he has explored the ideas of living space, landscape, and the relationship between architecture and community.
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Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help
Frank Lloyd Wright left behind a legacy of beautiful houses and buildings, an American style of architecture, and an example of what it means to live life based on the way things should be, not the way they are. He created some of the most monumental and intimate spaces in America. He designed everything: banks and resorts, office buildings and churches, a filling station and a synagogue, a beer garden and an art museum. Frank Lloyd Wright’s life truly was a work of art.
Wright was born on June 8, 1867, in Richland Center, Wisconsin. His early influences include his clergyman father’s playing of Bach and Beethoven and his mother’s gift of geometric blocks. Growing up, Wright spent much of his summers at a farm owned by his uncles; here, his favorite pastime was building forts out of hay and mud. In 1882, at the age of 15, he entered the University of Wisconsin as a special student, studying engineering because the school had no course in architecture.
Wright left Madison in 1887 to work as a draftsman in Chicago. Wright worked for several architectural offices until he finally found a job with the most skillful architect of the Mid-West, Louis Sullivan, soon becoming Sullivan’s chief assistant. Wright was assigned most of the firm’s designing of houses, and to pay his many debts he designed for private clients in his spare time. Sullivan disapproved, and Wright set up his own office, which was located in Oak Park.
Just before his twenty-second birthday, in 1889, Wright married Catherine Lee Tobin, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, and together with Sullivan as his former employer, she gave him the cultural background he lacked; she gave him social polish as well. Now, as an independent architect, Wright became the leader of a style known as the Prairie School, which is described as houses with low-pitched roofs and extended lines that blend into the landscape. Between the year of 1903-1906, Wright began using more modern materials, such as concrete.
In 1904, he designed the strong, practical Larkin building in Buffalo, New York. In 1905, Wright left the United States for the first time to travel to Japan for three months. In 1911, feeling too restricted by building primarily suburban structures, Wright began the construction of his new home and studio, located on his uncle’s Wisconsin farm, called Taliesin (Welsh for ‘shining brow’). “No house should ever be on a hill or on anything. It should be of the hill. Belonging to it.
Hill and house should live together each the happier for the other. ” (Frank Lloyd Wright, pg. 96) In 1909, the first phase of Wright’s career ended sadly, when he left his lover, Mamah Borthwick Chaney, the wife of a former client, and his five children alone at Taliesin. That day, a crazed servant murdered Mrs. Chaney and six others, also setting a fire that destroyed much of Taliesin. This incident caused a setback in his career for a short period of time. In 1916, Wright traveled back to Japan where he would spend much of the next six years.
He designed the Imperial Hotel, in Tokyo, floating the structure on an underlying sea of mud. Frank Lloyd Wright returned to the United States in 1922, he was in his mid-50’s, and facing one of the most difficult times in his life. Having long been separated from his first wife, Catherine Lee Tobin, Wright divorced her in 1922; the following year, he would enter into a brief, disastrous marriage with Miriam Noel. Meanwhile, he found himself with little work and few clients.
In 1923, he suffered the death of his mother, and in 1924, the death of his former employer and mentor, Louis Sullivan died, and Miriam left him. In the years between the separation and the final divorce, her behavior became increasingly erratic and disturbed; her accusations cause a lot of bad publicity for Wright, even leading to his brief arrest in 1926 on charges so violating the Mann Act. (The charges were related to his association with a new lover, Olgivanna Milanoff, who was threatened with deportation from the United States.
Another fire destroyed the Taliesin living quarters in 1925 (though without the loss of lives that had marked the earlier destruction in 1914). Wright’s financial problems were so severe that his creditors foreclosed on Taliesin in 1926 and evicted him from his home in 1927. “Architecture is that great living creative spirit which from generation, to generation, from age, to age, proceeds, persists, creates, according to the nature of man, and his circumstances they change. That is architecture. ” (Frank Lloyd Wright pg. 106)
Despite these troubles, Wright worked strenuously throughout the decade. In August 1928, he married Olgivanna Milanoff, who was to provide extraordinary support for the rest of his life. Later, in 1928; he regained possession of Taliesin. Wright had begun to work on An Autobiography in 1928; the publication of its first version in 1932, along with his other writings, revealed a clear and complex theory of architecture. In October 1932, a little more than ten years after his return from Japan, Wright founded a fellowship for young architects at Taliesin.
It was to be an ideal community, emphasizing work and study that corresponded with Wright’s work of that time. Designs for new commissions showed his creative powers to be as strong as ever, and Wright entered the most productive phase of his career, with designs for Broadacre City, “Fallingwater,” the S. C. Johnson and Son Administration Building and the Usonian house. The ideas that Wright conceived between 1922 1932 formed the basis for much of his later work. Whenever Wright faced personal dilemmas, he always seemed to emerge with wonderful new architecture.
From 1936 to the end of his life, Frank Lloyd Wright produced work constantly. Within those years, Wright purchased 800 acres of land in Arizona to build Taliesin West, he received the gold medal of the American Institute of Architecture, finished the final plan of the Guggenheim Museum, was awarded and honorary doctorate from Yale University, and founded the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation. Frank Lloyd Wright died on April 9, 1959, in Phoenix Arizona, during one of the greatest stages of his lifetime.
Throughout his lifetime, Frank Lloyd Wright not only changed many of the “design rules” of his time, but he also changed the face of architecture all over the world. His passion for this craft was so strong that it was visible in all of his work, and still lives on today. “… having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live. Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all time. ” (Frank Lloyd Wright pg. 203) Frank Lloyd Wright will forever be remembered as one of the greatest artists to have lived.
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William III. and Mary II.—The Story of a Sad Day in a Highland Glen
T HE friends of James were called Jacobites, from Jacobus which is Latin for James. There were many Jacobites in the north of Scotland. They rose under Claverhouse, the man who had treated the Covenanters so badly, and a battle was fought at Killiecrankie Pass. The Jacobites won the day, but their leader was killed, so, although many of the clans continued to be discontented, they were without a leader and could do little.
The discontent and rebellion went on for a year or two, and at last William determined to put an end to it. He proclaimed that he would forgive all those who had rebelled, if they would take an oath, before 1st January 1692 A.D., acknowledging him as King, and promising to live quietly and peacefully under his rule. Those who did not take the oath would be punished.
All the Highland chieftains, except the chief of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, took the oath. This chief was very unwilling to own William as King, and he could not bring himself to do so until the very last day. Then he started off from his lonely glen and went to the nearest town, where he expected to find one of the King's officers to whom he could swear the oath. But to his dismay he found that he had come to the wrong town, and that there was no one there who could receive his oath.
He started off again, as quickly as he could, to go to the right town. But it was deep winter, and traveling was very slow in those days, and he was six days late when he arrived. However, his oath was accepted, and he went home feeling safe and happy.
But a man called the Master of Stair, who was governing Scotland for William and Mary, hated all Highlanders, and the Campbells, another clan, hated the Macdonalds. So the Campbells and the Master of Stair decided that, as the chief had been a few days late in swearing to obey William, they had a good excuse for killing all the Macdonalds.
William was not told that Macdonald had sworn. He was made to believe that he had not done so, and that the whole clan was a set of robbers, and he signed an order for them to be destroyed. Although it is said that William did not know what he was doing when he signed this order, he ought to have known, and the Massacre of Glencoe, as it is called, is the darkest spot on his reign.
The Master of Stair had the King's order, but he did not do his work openly. He sent Campbell and his men to live in Glencoe for nearly a fortnight, so that Macdonald should suspect nothing. The old chief received the men kindly, and treated as his guests those who were ready to betray and murder him.
At five o'clock one dark winter's morning, the Campbells crept silently out of the houses and along the snow-covered paths to the scattered cottages. A few minutes later the glen was awake with the sounds of shots and screams. Campbell and his soldiers were at their work. Without mercy men were killed almost in their sleep. Those, who were able, fled through the darkness and the snow with their wives and children, many of them only to die of cold and hunger among the lonely mountains and glens. The soldiers murdered all they could, then they set fire to the empty houses and marched away, driving before them the cattle and horses belonging to the Macdonalds. And when the sun rose high over the valley of Glencoe, it shone only on blood-stained snow and blackened, smoking ruins, where peaceful homes had been but a few hours before.
For some time Britain and France had been at war, for the French King hated William, and would not acknowledge him as King of Britain. William spent a part of every year abroad directing this war and ruling Holland. While he was gone, Mary ruled in England. She governed so well, and was so sweet and gentle, that the people loved her dearly. They loved her far more than they loved William, who was so quiet and stern as to seem almost sullen.
But in 1694 A.D., Mary became ill of a very dreadful disease called smallpox, and died in a few days. William had loved her very much, and he was very sad when she died. "I was the happiest man on earth," he said to one of his friends, "now I am the most miserable. She had no fault, none; you knew her well, but you could not know, nobody but myself could know, her goodness." And if the King sorrowed, the whole country sorrowed with him.
After the death of Mary, William ruled alone.
At last the King of France made peace with William, perhaps because he was tired of fighting, perhaps because he was a little tired of helping James, who was really very dull and stupid. By this peace the French King consented to acknowledge William as the rightful King of Britain, and to give back the lands he had wrongfully taken from Germany and the other countries he had been fighting against.
A few years later James died, and Louis XIV., the French King, forgot the promise he had made to William. He proclaimed the son of James to be King of Britain under the title of James III. This made the British very angry, although it really did not matter much. A French King might call James King of Britain, but that could not make him so truly. However, William wanted to go to war with France again for another reason, and this act of the French King decided the people to do so. This other reason was that the King of Spain had died, and Louis wanted to make his own grandson King of Spain, so that France and Spain should in time come to be one kingdom. But some of the Kings in Europe thought that it would be most dangerous to allow this, as then the King of France might become too powerful, and want more than ever to take lands which did not belong to him. So William and the other Kings of Europe formed what was called the Grand Alliance, and the war which now began was called the War of the Spanish Succession, because the quarrel was about who should succeed to the throne of Spain.
But before war was declared, William died. He had always been rather ill although, in spite of that, he had both thought and worked hard, and for some time now he had been very unwell. One day when he was out riding he was thrown from his horse, and broke his collar-bone. This might not have hurt a strong man, but William was not strong, and a few days later, 8th March 1702 A.D., he died.
William was a great and brave man. He did much for Britain, yet he was never loved by the people. They felt that he was a Dutchman, and that he cared more for Holland than for his kingdom of Britain, and that made it difficult for them to love him.
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William III. and Mary II.—The Story of a Sad Day in a Highland Glen
T HE friends of James were called Jacobites, from Jacobus which is Latin for James. There were many Jacobites in the north of Scotland. They rose under Claverhouse, the man who had treated the Covenanters so badly, and a battle was fought at Killiecrankie Pass. The Jacobites won the day, but their leader was killed, so, although many of the clans continued to be discontented, they were without a leader and could do little.
The discontent and rebellion went on for a year or two, and at last William determined to put an end to it. He proclaimed that he would forgive all those who had rebelled, if they would take an oath, before 1st January 1692 A.D., acknowledging him as King, and promising to live quietly and peacefully under his rule. Those who did not take the oath would be punished.
All the Highland chieftains, except the chief of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, took the oath. This chief was very unwilling to own William as King, and he could not bring himself to do so until the very last day. Then he started off from his lonely glen and went to the nearest town, where he expected to find one of the King's officers to whom he could swear the oath. But to his dismay he found that he had come to the wrong town, and that there was no one there who could receive his oath.
He started off again, as quickly as he could, to go to the right town. But it was deep winter, and traveling was very slow in those days, and he was six days late when he arrived. However, his oath was accepted, and he went home feeling safe and happy.
But a man called the Master of Stair, who was governing Scotland for William and Mary, hated all Highlanders, and the Campbells, another clan, hated the Macdonalds. So the Campbells and the Master of Stair decided that, as the chief had been a few days late in swearing to obey William, they had a good excuse for killing all the Macdonalds.
William was not told that Macdonald had sworn. He was made to believe that he had not done so, and that the whole clan was a set of robbers, and he signed an order for them to be destroyed. Although it is said that William did not know what he was doing when he signed this order, he ought to have known, and the Massacre of Glencoe, as it is called, is the darkest spot on his reign.
The Master of Stair had the King's order, but he did not do his work openly. He sent Campbell and his men to live in Glencoe for nearly a fortnight, so that Macdonald should suspect nothing. The old chief received the men kindly, and treated as his guests those who were ready to betray and murder him.
At five o'clock one dark winter's morning, the Campbells crept silently out of the houses and along the snow-covered paths to the scattered cottages. A few minutes later the glen was awake with the sounds of shots and screams. Campbell and his soldiers were at their work. Without mercy men were killed almost in their sleep. Those, who were able, fled through the darkness and the snow with their wives and children, many of them only to die of cold and hunger among the lonely mountains and glens. The soldiers murdered all they could, then they set fire to the empty houses and marched away, driving before them the cattle and horses belonging to the Macdonalds. And when the sun rose high over the valley of Glencoe, it shone only on blood-stained snow and blackened, smoking ruins, where peaceful homes had been but a few hours before.
For some time Britain and France had been at war, for the French King hated William, and would not acknowledge him as King of Britain. William spent a part of every year abroad directing this war and ruling Holland. While he was gone, Mary ruled in England. She governed so well, and was so sweet and gentle, that the people loved her dearly. They loved her far more than they loved William, who was so quiet and stern as to seem almost sullen.
But in 1694 A.D., Mary became ill of a very dreadful disease called smallpox, and died in a few days. William had loved her very much, and he was very sad when she died. "I was the happiest man on earth," he said to one of his friends, "now I am the most miserable. She had no fault, none; you knew her well, but you could not know, nobody but myself could know, her goodness." And if the King sorrowed, the whole country sorrowed with him.
After the death of Mary, William ruled alone.
At last the King of France made peace with William, perhaps because he was tired of fighting, perhaps because he was a little tired of helping James, who was really very dull and stupid. By this peace the French King consented to acknowledge William as the rightful King of Britain, and to give back the lands he had wrongfully taken from Germany and the other countries he had been fighting against.
A few years later James died, and Louis XIV., the French King, forgot the promise he had made to William. He proclaimed the son of James to be King of Britain under the title of James III. This made the British very angry, although it really did not matter much. A French King might call James King of Britain, but that could not make him so truly. However, William wanted to go to war with France again for another reason, and this act of the French King decided the people to do so. This other reason was that the King of Spain had died, and Louis wanted to make his own grandson King of Spain, so that France and Spain should in time come to be one kingdom. But some of the Kings in Europe thought that it would be most dangerous to allow this, as then the King of France might become too powerful, and want more than ever to take lands which did not belong to him. So William and the other Kings of Europe formed what was called the Grand Alliance, and the war which now began was called the War of the Spanish Succession, because the quarrel was about who should succeed to the throne of Spain.
But before war was declared, William died. He had always been rather ill although, in spite of that, he had both thought and worked hard, and for some time now he had been very unwell. One day when he was out riding he was thrown from his horse, and broke his collar-bone. This might not have hurt a strong man, but William was not strong, and a few days later, 8th March 1702 A.D., he died.
William was a great and brave man. He did much for Britain, yet he was never loved by the people. They felt that he was a Dutchman, and that he cared more for Holland than for his kingdom of Britain, and that made it difficult for them to love him.
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The story of how Victorian dresses came about
The Victorian period was a very famous era that existed in the 1830s–1890s. It is named after the British Queen Victoria. She became a very influential monarch when in that era women has little opportunity and power. Women were made to live in the benevolence of men – either their fathers or the husband. They were expected to be meek and mild and only followed the husband or the fathers’ wishes. Employment opportunities were limited except for those who lived on farms. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, there was new wealth created for merchants, industrialists, and investors. This produced a class of society known as the middle class and the upper class who were now proud of their status and displayed their wealth flashily. The women wore their fabric as a fashion statement. It ranged from hoop skirts to bustles and other kinds of beautiful dress styles during the Victorian era. The cities and towns were now urbanized and people began to have a fashion sense. Women however later called for the reforms in fashion after the Victorian era.
Vintage long sleeves Victorian dresses were worn by women of the middle and the upper class. They set the pace in fashion. They had different dresses for when they were indoors, went visiting and other dinner gowns and ball gowns. The wealthy even sometimes had beaded and jewel trains as part of their dresses. As part of the dress, some women wore corsets when they were wearing their Elegant Victorian dresses. The corset was supposed to make your waist thin and give you shape in the dress. There were however some side effects of wearing these corsets before dressing. It is said that wearing beautiful Victorian dresses affected somewhat the way women walked, sat or even moved their arms. To complement Victorian dresses, people added hats. These prevented them from damage or hurt from the sun.
New Black Victorian dresses were and are still beautiful for different occasions. These dresses come in simple but elegant styles. Wearing them means you are identified with a particular class of people. Vintage Victorian dresses are held in high esteem and the fashion sense in the Victorian era is described as one of the best periods the world has seen. Architecture, literature, clothing style and decorative art have their roots from the C 18th.
Women wore gloves, bonnets, and other accessories to beautify themselves. To get a dress, either you will have to go to the tailors or seamstress to get it designed for you, but if you couldn’t afford, you can sow it yourself. By the C 20th, things changed a bit, clothes were now being factory-made. It didn’t make the production of Victorian dresses extinct but it made custom sewing reduced to a lower volume. Sleeveless Victorian dresses are still in great demand and they are displayed in the shops and made available to those who need them. England, Ireland, and Scotland are cited as the most common cities where attractive long-sleeved Victorian dresses sprang up.
Victorian dresses: solving a need
The need for elegant dresses can stem from different reasons. It can be for a prom party, wedding, etc. Finding a suitable dress for the occasion can be a daunting task. Ball gown Victorian dresses are good options for those who were in a fix and didn’t know what to wear. There were a lot of options available when it comes to clothing but Victorian dresses are the most remarkable choice when its time for balls and other dinner events.
The surprising part is that the males have their share of dressing for the Victorian era also. They had long boots, overcoats, waistcoats, and others. The C 19th has gone a long way to influence clothing, fashion and some shops do still sell them. They are still in vogue and leading stores do have them in stock. Some people even choose Victorian dresses as their wedding theme. On such occasions, the dress can be customized to suit your style and design of your choice. If you want an extraordinary look and all your other dress options are not suitable then white lace Victorian dresses are the way to go. You will be surprised at how good you will look in them for that event that you are planning to go to.
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https://deepcutdiscounts.com/product-category/victorian-dresses/
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] | 1
|
The story of how Victorian dresses came about
The Victorian period was a very famous era that existed in the 1830s–1890s. It is named after the British Queen Victoria. She became a very influential monarch when in that era women has little opportunity and power. Women were made to live in the benevolence of men – either their fathers or the husband. They were expected to be meek and mild and only followed the husband or the fathers’ wishes. Employment opportunities were limited except for those who lived on farms. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, there was new wealth created for merchants, industrialists, and investors. This produced a class of society known as the middle class and the upper class who were now proud of their status and displayed their wealth flashily. The women wore their fabric as a fashion statement. It ranged from hoop skirts to bustles and other kinds of beautiful dress styles during the Victorian era. The cities and towns were now urbanized and people began to have a fashion sense. Women however later called for the reforms in fashion after the Victorian era.
Vintage long sleeves Victorian dresses were worn by women of the middle and the upper class. They set the pace in fashion. They had different dresses for when they were indoors, went visiting and other dinner gowns and ball gowns. The wealthy even sometimes had beaded and jewel trains as part of their dresses. As part of the dress, some women wore corsets when they were wearing their Elegant Victorian dresses. The corset was supposed to make your waist thin and give you shape in the dress. There were however some side effects of wearing these corsets before dressing. It is said that wearing beautiful Victorian dresses affected somewhat the way women walked, sat or even moved their arms. To complement Victorian dresses, people added hats. These prevented them from damage or hurt from the sun.
New Black Victorian dresses were and are still beautiful for different occasions. These dresses come in simple but elegant styles. Wearing them means you are identified with a particular class of people. Vintage Victorian dresses are held in high esteem and the fashion sense in the Victorian era is described as one of the best periods the world has seen. Architecture, literature, clothing style and decorative art have their roots from the C 18th.
Women wore gloves, bonnets, and other accessories to beautify themselves. To get a dress, either you will have to go to the tailors or seamstress to get it designed for you, but if you couldn’t afford, you can sow it yourself. By the C 20th, things changed a bit, clothes were now being factory-made. It didn’t make the production of Victorian dresses extinct but it made custom sewing reduced to a lower volume. Sleeveless Victorian dresses are still in great demand and they are displayed in the shops and made available to those who need them. England, Ireland, and Scotland are cited as the most common cities where attractive long-sleeved Victorian dresses sprang up.
Victorian dresses: solving a need
The need for elegant dresses can stem from different reasons. It can be for a prom party, wedding, etc. Finding a suitable dress for the occasion can be a daunting task. Ball gown Victorian dresses are good options for those who were in a fix and didn’t know what to wear. There were a lot of options available when it comes to clothing but Victorian dresses are the most remarkable choice when its time for balls and other dinner events.
The surprising part is that the males have their share of dressing for the Victorian era also. They had long boots, overcoats, waistcoats, and others. The C 19th has gone a long way to influence clothing, fashion and some shops do still sell them. They are still in vogue and leading stores do have them in stock. Some people even choose Victorian dresses as their wedding theme. On such occasions, the dress can be customized to suit your style and design of your choice. If you want an extraordinary look and all your other dress options are not suitable then white lace Victorian dresses are the way to go. You will be surprised at how good you will look in them for that event that you are planning to go to.
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Following the Civil War, General Carleton (photo at left) requested that a new fort be established in what is now southwestern New Mexico which was in the heart of the Apache homeland. Its mission would be to protect the miners, ranchers, and emigrant and business trails. The new fort was to be named Fort Bayard in honor of General George D. Bayard.
General Bayard was born in Seneca Falls, NY in 1835. His pioneering family moved to the Iowa Territory. Following graduation from West Point in 1856 as 2nd Lt of Cavalry, he returned to the west and fought against the Native Americans in Colorado and Kansas. With the onset of the Civil War, he vreturned east and was commissioned coloneln of thge 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry and assigned to defend Washington. He served in many positions and because of his leadership skills was commissioned chief of the cavalry of the III Corps and became a Brigadier General in April of 1862. After the restructuring of the Army of the Potomac, he was promoted to cavalry commander. He was mortally wounded during the Battle of Fredericksburg two weeks before his birthday and wedding.
On August 21st, 1866, Fort Bayard Military Post was established by the 125th U.S Colored Troops Company F, under Lt .James Kerr. Other companines of the U.S. Colored Troops from Louisville, Kentucky continued to arrive. Company M of the 3rd Cavalry and Companies B & E of the 5th Infantry completed the first assignmemts. With the 3rd Cavalry Josephine Cifford, the wife of 2nd Lt. James Clifford, arrived. She was called "the mother of Fort Bayard' by the troops.
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Following the Civil War, General Carleton (photo at left) requested that a new fort be established in what is now southwestern New Mexico which was in the heart of the Apache homeland. Its mission would be to protect the miners, ranchers, and emigrant and business trails. The new fort was to be named Fort Bayard in honor of General George D. Bayard.
General Bayard was born in Seneca Falls, NY in 1835. His pioneering family moved to the Iowa Territory. Following graduation from West Point in 1856 as 2nd Lt of Cavalry, he returned to the west and fought against the Native Americans in Colorado and Kansas. With the onset of the Civil War, he vreturned east and was commissioned coloneln of thge 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry and assigned to defend Washington. He served in many positions and because of his leadership skills was commissioned chief of the cavalry of the III Corps and became a Brigadier General in April of 1862. After the restructuring of the Army of the Potomac, he was promoted to cavalry commander. He was mortally wounded during the Battle of Fredericksburg two weeks before his birthday and wedding.
On August 21st, 1866, Fort Bayard Military Post was established by the 125th U.S Colored Troops Company F, under Lt .James Kerr. Other companines of the U.S. Colored Troops from Louisville, Kentucky continued to arrive. Company M of the 3rd Cavalry and Companies B & E of the 5th Infantry completed the first assignmemts. With the 3rd Cavalry Josephine Cifford, the wife of 2nd Lt. James Clifford, arrived. She was called "the mother of Fort Bayard' by the troops.
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For a New Nation, Hamilton Seeks a Bank
[THE MAKING OF A NATION] > 2013-11-14
��» Download Audio
From VOA Learning English, welcome to The Making of a Nation – American history in VOA Special English. I'm Steve Ember.
This week in our series we continue the story of Alexander Hamilton. He was the nation's first secretary of the treasury.
Alexander Hamilton firmly believed that no country could become a modern nation without industry. So, he carefully developed a program that would make the United States an industrial nation.
Part of his program protected American manufacturers from foreign competition. Hamilton protected them by establishing a system of import taxes on some foreign goods brought into American ports. These tariffs raised the prices of those goods. As a result, American manufacturers had much less competition in selling their products.
Alexander Hamilton also organized the nation's finances. One of his first steps was to pay back the debt the country owed from the Revolutionary War. But Hamilton wanted to go much further. He wanted to establish a national bank.
Hamilton argued that many European countries had national banks. University of Virginia history professor Andrew O'Shaughnessy says Hamilton saw the advantage of Britain's system. It permitted a very small country to go deeply into debt while fighting wars.
"The British had essentially been able to project power well beyond their size, thanks to a very efficient financial system and system of borrowing."
Hamilton said a national bank in America would increase the flow of money throughout the country. It would help the national government negotiate loans and collect taxes. Business historian John Steele Gordon says Hamilton believed a centralized bank would also keep the states from competing with each other.
"Banks always have the problem that they're in the money business, so they're always tempted to lend too much and speculate too much. So he wanted a central mechanism to keep them on a short leash."
But Hamilton's plan raised old fears, especially among farmers in the South. Critics argued that a national bank would give too much power to a few rich men in the North. It would take control of state banks, on which southern farmers and small businessmen depended. It would also increase the use of paper money, instead of gold and silver.
James Madison led the opposition against Hamilton's plan in Congress.
Madison said the United States should not put all its wealth in one place. So he proposed a system of many smaller banks in different parts of the country. He also argued that the idea of a central bank was unconstitutional.
No one knew more about the American Constitution than James Madison. He was given credit for most of the ideas in it. Everyone respected his explanations of its wording.
Madison noted that the Constitution gave Congress a number of powers, which were stated. For example, the Constitution gave Congress the power to borrow money. But Congress could borrow money only to repay debts, to defend the country and to provide for the general good of the people. Madison said permitting Congress to do more than what was in the Constitution was dangerous.
Hamilton presented a very different view. His view came to be known as the "implied powers doctrine." In other words, the Constitution includes powers without naming them. Business historian John Steele Gordon says this means that Congress can do whatever it needs to do to fulfill its duties, unless the Constitution forbids it.
"This is an argument that has been going on in the United States now for well over 200 years and probably will go on for another 200 years."
In 1790, Hamilton's view won more congressional support.
He got enough votes to approve his proposal to establish a national bank.
Still, President George Washington had to sign the bill into law. Washington worried about the possibility that the bill was not constitutional. So he asked three men for advice: Attorney General Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton.
Randolph had no firm answer. Jefferson agreed with Madison. Creating a national bank violated the Constitution.
Hamilton, of course, disagreed. He said the Constitution gave the government a number of powers besides those written down. Otherwise, he said, the government could not work.
These arguments did not completely answer all of President Washington's questions. But he went ahead and signed the bill to establish a national bank in America.
One of its jobs was to maintain the value of the country's currency and to borrow money for the government. The national bank also increased the flow of capital needed for investment. It fed the country's business and commercial activities. And it collected taxes.
Business historian John Steele Gordon says America's financial success in the 1790s showed that Hamilton's plan worked.
"It was known as the Hamiltonian miracle."
The national bank, and many of Hamilton's other ideas, had another important effect. They created a disagreement that still exists. The disagreement began with Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.
The two men were very different.
Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies to a man and woman who were not married. However, Hamilton was educated in America. And he gained a place in society by marrying the daughter of a wealthy landowner in New York state.
Money and position were important to Hamilton. He believed men of money and position should govern the nation.
Thomas Jefferson could have been what Alexander Hamilton wanted to be. Through his mother, he was distantly related to British noblemen. And he liked fine food, wine, books and music.
But Jefferson had great respect for simple farmers and for the men who opened America's western lands to settlement. He believed they, too, had a right to govern the nation.
University of Virginia historian Andrew O'Shaughnessy says both Hamilton and Jefferson believed they were defending the ideals of the American Revolution. And he says their disagreement revealed their fears.
Professor O'Shaughnessy says Hamilton remembered the chaos under the country's first, weak government. He was afraid the government would collapse and there would be social anarchy.
"John Adams and Alexander Hamilton felt that differences were breaking down too much and that it would lead to a breakdown in authority."
On the other hand, he says Jefferson and his supporters were afraid that the American Revolution would, like most revolutions, fail. A small, elite group would control the country again. In other words, they were afraid of tyranny.
Hamilton and Jefferson's personal disagreements turned into a public dispute when they served in President Washington's cabinet. The president tried to make peace between them. He liked them and respected them. He believed the new nation needed the skills of both men.
However, the disagreement became more than just a question of two strong men who could not agree. It became a battle of two completely different philosophies of government.
Those who supported Hamilton became known as the Federalist Party. The Federalists supported a strong national government with a powerful president and courts. In the early 1790s, the Federalists controlled the Congress. They also had great influence over President Washington.
Most Federalists lived in the cities of the Northeast. They were the nation's bankers and big businessmen. They were lawyers, doctors, and clergymen.
But at that time, the majority of Americans were farmers, laborers and small businessmen. Many were bitter over government policies that always seemed to help the wealthy. They had no political party to speak for them. These were the people Thomas Jefferson wanted to reach.
Jefferson's task was big. Many of these Americans knew little of what was happening outside their local area. Many were not permitted to vote, because they did not own property.
Jefferson looked at the situation in each state. Almost everywhere, he found local political groups fighting against state laws that helped the rich.
These local groups were what Jefferson needed. He worked to bring them together into a national party to oppose the Federalists. The party came to be called the Jeffersonian Republicans — or just the Republicans.
It may sound confusing, but today many of Jefferson's ideas are expressed by the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party. This is because of changes in parties and party names over the years.
In Jefferson and Hamilton's time, says Professor O'Shaughnessy, the idea of organized political parties was new in America.
"Today we would regard the existence of party politics as essential for the functioning of democracy. There needs to be minority view expressed. Government needs to be held accountable by an opposing party."
But at that time, he says, the people who fought in the American Revolution expected to be united.
As a result, the country did not have any laws governing what political parties could or could not do. There were no restrictions on the political activities of government officials.
So Hamilton and Jefferson carried on a war of words in their party newspapers.
Jefferson, especially, felt the need for newspapers in a democracy. He believed they provided the only way for a large population to know the truth. He once said if he had to choose between a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, he would choose newspapers without a government.
Both parties' newspapers carried unsigned articles attacking the opposition. Both printed stories that were false. At times, the attacks were personal. Many people felt the two cabinet secretaries should be above that kind of public fighting. But Professor O'Shaughnessy says that did not stop them.
"The party politics became as bad as any time in history."
Toward the end of President Washington's first administration, he received a letter from Jefferson. The secretary of state said he planned to resign. He said he disagreed with most of the administration's domestic and foreign policies. He did not name Hamilton. It was not necessary. Washington knew what he meant. Hamilton was the chief planner of those policies.
But Jefferson decided not to resign. In a letter to his daughter, Jefferson said the attacks on him changed a decision which he did not think could possibly be changed. He must remain and fight.
So, while continuing to serve as secretary of state, Jefferson began working to get his supporters elected to Congress. He believed that was the only way to fight Hamilton. National elections were set for 1792. That contest will be our story next week.
I'm Steve Ember, inviting you to join us each week at this time for The Making of a Nation – American history in VOA Special English.
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For a New Nation, Hamilton Seeks a Bank
[THE MAKING OF A NATION] > 2013-11-14
��» Download Audio
From VOA Learning English, welcome to The Making of a Nation – American history in VOA Special English. I'm Steve Ember.
This week in our series we continue the story of Alexander Hamilton. He was the nation's first secretary of the treasury.
Alexander Hamilton firmly believed that no country could become a modern nation without industry. So, he carefully developed a program that would make the United States an industrial nation.
Part of his program protected American manufacturers from foreign competition. Hamilton protected them by establishing a system of import taxes on some foreign goods brought into American ports. These tariffs raised the prices of those goods. As a result, American manufacturers had much less competition in selling their products.
Alexander Hamilton also organized the nation's finances. One of his first steps was to pay back the debt the country owed from the Revolutionary War. But Hamilton wanted to go much further. He wanted to establish a national bank.
Hamilton argued that many European countries had national banks. University of Virginia history professor Andrew O'Shaughnessy says Hamilton saw the advantage of Britain's system. It permitted a very small country to go deeply into debt while fighting wars.
"The British had essentially been able to project power well beyond their size, thanks to a very efficient financial system and system of borrowing."
Hamilton said a national bank in America would increase the flow of money throughout the country. It would help the national government negotiate loans and collect taxes. Business historian John Steele Gordon says Hamilton believed a centralized bank would also keep the states from competing with each other.
"Banks always have the problem that they're in the money business, so they're always tempted to lend too much and speculate too much. So he wanted a central mechanism to keep them on a short leash."
But Hamilton's plan raised old fears, especially among farmers in the South. Critics argued that a national bank would give too much power to a few rich men in the North. It would take control of state banks, on which southern farmers and small businessmen depended. It would also increase the use of paper money, instead of gold and silver.
James Madison led the opposition against Hamilton's plan in Congress.
Madison said the United States should not put all its wealth in one place. So he proposed a system of many smaller banks in different parts of the country. He also argued that the idea of a central bank was unconstitutional.
No one knew more about the American Constitution than James Madison. He was given credit for most of the ideas in it. Everyone respected his explanations of its wording.
Madison noted that the Constitution gave Congress a number of powers, which were stated. For example, the Constitution gave Congress the power to borrow money. But Congress could borrow money only to repay debts, to defend the country and to provide for the general good of the people. Madison said permitting Congress to do more than what was in the Constitution was dangerous.
Hamilton presented a very different view. His view came to be known as the "implied powers doctrine." In other words, the Constitution includes powers without naming them. Business historian John Steele Gordon says this means that Congress can do whatever it needs to do to fulfill its duties, unless the Constitution forbids it.
"This is an argument that has been going on in the United States now for well over 200 years and probably will go on for another 200 years."
In 1790, Hamilton's view won more congressional support.
He got enough votes to approve his proposal to establish a national bank.
Still, President George Washington had to sign the bill into law. Washington worried about the possibility that the bill was not constitutional. So he asked three men for advice: Attorney General Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton.
Randolph had no firm answer. Jefferson agreed with Madison. Creating a national bank violated the Constitution.
Hamilton, of course, disagreed. He said the Constitution gave the government a number of powers besides those written down. Otherwise, he said, the government could not work.
These arguments did not completely answer all of President Washington's questions. But he went ahead and signed the bill to establish a national bank in America.
One of its jobs was to maintain the value of the country's currency and to borrow money for the government. The national bank also increased the flow of capital needed for investment. It fed the country's business and commercial activities. And it collected taxes.
Business historian John Steele Gordon says America's financial success in the 1790s showed that Hamilton's plan worked.
"It was known as the Hamiltonian miracle."
The national bank, and many of Hamilton's other ideas, had another important effect. They created a disagreement that still exists. The disagreement began with Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.
The two men were very different.
Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies to a man and woman who were not married. However, Hamilton was educated in America. And he gained a place in society by marrying the daughter of a wealthy landowner in New York state.
Money and position were important to Hamilton. He believed men of money and position should govern the nation.
Thomas Jefferson could have been what Alexander Hamilton wanted to be. Through his mother, he was distantly related to British noblemen. And he liked fine food, wine, books and music.
But Jefferson had great respect for simple farmers and for the men who opened America's western lands to settlement. He believed they, too, had a right to govern the nation.
University of Virginia historian Andrew O'Shaughnessy says both Hamilton and Jefferson believed they were defending the ideals of the American Revolution. And he says their disagreement revealed their fears.
Professor O'Shaughnessy says Hamilton remembered the chaos under the country's first, weak government. He was afraid the government would collapse and there would be social anarchy.
"John Adams and Alexander Hamilton felt that differences were breaking down too much and that it would lead to a breakdown in authority."
On the other hand, he says Jefferson and his supporters were afraid that the American Revolution would, like most revolutions, fail. A small, elite group would control the country again. In other words, they were afraid of tyranny.
Hamilton and Jefferson's personal disagreements turned into a public dispute when they served in President Washington's cabinet. The president tried to make peace between them. He liked them and respected them. He believed the new nation needed the skills of both men.
However, the disagreement became more than just a question of two strong men who could not agree. It became a battle of two completely different philosophies of government.
Those who supported Hamilton became known as the Federalist Party. The Federalists supported a strong national government with a powerful president and courts. In the early 1790s, the Federalists controlled the Congress. They also had great influence over President Washington.
Most Federalists lived in the cities of the Northeast. They were the nation's bankers and big businessmen. They were lawyers, doctors, and clergymen.
But at that time, the majority of Americans were farmers, laborers and small businessmen. Many were bitter over government policies that always seemed to help the wealthy. They had no political party to speak for them. These were the people Thomas Jefferson wanted to reach.
Jefferson's task was big. Many of these Americans knew little of what was happening outside their local area. Many were not permitted to vote, because they did not own property.
Jefferson looked at the situation in each state. Almost everywhere, he found local political groups fighting against state laws that helped the rich.
These local groups were what Jefferson needed. He worked to bring them together into a national party to oppose the Federalists. The party came to be called the Jeffersonian Republicans — or just the Republicans.
It may sound confusing, but today many of Jefferson's ideas are expressed by the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party. This is because of changes in parties and party names over the years.
In Jefferson and Hamilton's time, says Professor O'Shaughnessy, the idea of organized political parties was new in America.
"Today we would regard the existence of party politics as essential for the functioning of democracy. There needs to be minority view expressed. Government needs to be held accountable by an opposing party."
But at that time, he says, the people who fought in the American Revolution expected to be united.
As a result, the country did not have any laws governing what political parties could or could not do. There were no restrictions on the political activities of government officials.
So Hamilton and Jefferson carried on a war of words in their party newspapers.
Jefferson, especially, felt the need for newspapers in a democracy. He believed they provided the only way for a large population to know the truth. He once said if he had to choose between a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, he would choose newspapers without a government.
Both parties' newspapers carried unsigned articles attacking the opposition. Both printed stories that were false. At times, the attacks were personal. Many people felt the two cabinet secretaries should be above that kind of public fighting. But Professor O'Shaughnessy says that did not stop them.
"The party politics became as bad as any time in history."
Toward the end of President Washington's first administration, he received a letter from Jefferson. The secretary of state said he planned to resign. He said he disagreed with most of the administration's domestic and foreign policies. He did not name Hamilton. It was not necessary. Washington knew what he meant. Hamilton was the chief planner of those policies.
But Jefferson decided not to resign. In a letter to his daughter, Jefferson said the attacks on him changed a decision which he did not think could possibly be changed. He must remain and fight.
So, while continuing to serve as secretary of state, Jefferson began working to get his supporters elected to Congress. He believed that was the only way to fight Hamilton. National elections were set for 1792. That contest will be our story next week.
I'm Steve Ember, inviting you to join us each week at this time for The Making of a Nation – American history in VOA Special English.
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This week in Maths we have started our learning on multiplication. We have been identifying multiples, factors, common factors and prime numbers. We have been talking about how the better we know our time stables, the easier we will find this. I have been encouraging the children to write down the tables that they need to work on in their own time and how practising little and often will make a huge difference.
In English we have been looking at diary entries. We have been text mapping and learning a diary entry which is all about Joe's best day ever. We have been reading the text as a writer and underlining the key features. We have also been identifying the structure of the text.
In Science this week we have been continuing our learning on forces. We have investigated the effects of water resistance by making parachutes out of different materials. We have also investigated the effects of water resistance and how streamlined shapes are able to move through the water or air more quickly. We did this by making 3 different shapes out of plasticine and timing them as they drop through the water to see which one would fall the quickest.
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|
This week in Maths we have started our learning on multiplication. We have been identifying multiples, factors, common factors and prime numbers. We have been talking about how the better we know our time stables, the easier we will find this. I have been encouraging the children to write down the tables that they need to work on in their own time and how practising little and often will make a huge difference.
In English we have been looking at diary entries. We have been text mapping and learning a diary entry which is all about Joe's best day ever. We have been reading the text as a writer and underlining the key features. We have also been identifying the structure of the text.
In Science this week we have been continuing our learning on forces. We have investigated the effects of water resistance by making parachutes out of different materials. We have also investigated the effects of water resistance and how streamlined shapes are able to move through the water or air more quickly. We did this by making 3 different shapes out of plasticine and timing them as they drop through the water to see which one would fall the quickest.
| 225
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ENGLISH
| 1
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As part of our ‘London’s Burning’ topic we held a very exciting theme day. We came dressed as Victorians and our classroom was transformed into a classroom from the era. We wrote on blackboard, baked bread, practiced our sewing and lots more.
We visited Eden Camp to learn all about WW2 for our topic. We had a brilliant time and asked lots of amazing questions. It was really interesting and we saw lots of brilliant artefacts from the time. It is really going to help us with our work back in school.
!Today we have been to Leeds City Museum. We went to look at all the Ancient Egyptian artefacts. They had loads! We had different workshops as well. In one we made amulets and in the other one we found out all about mummification! We had a great time.
We have studied the lives of Christopher Columbus and Neil Armstrong.
In our DT lesson we used everyday materials to model a boat similar to the one used by Columbus.
We spent time designing out boat discussing the features and their purpose, then we discussed the suitability of materials for our designs.
We had some funny faces whilst learning about the process of mummification today! Year 3 now know every step in the process and why the Egyptians thought it was important to do this.
Year 3 have been learning about what the Ancient Egyptians used pyramids for and why they were important. We have created our own pyramids ourselves thinking about how many sugar cubes we needed for each layer. We then placed them all together to form an Egyptian desert setting! We had lots of fun!
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] | 1
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As part of our ‘London’s Burning’ topic we held a very exciting theme day. We came dressed as Victorians and our classroom was transformed into a classroom from the era. We wrote on blackboard, baked bread, practiced our sewing and lots more.
We visited Eden Camp to learn all about WW2 for our topic. We had a brilliant time and asked lots of amazing questions. It was really interesting and we saw lots of brilliant artefacts from the time. It is really going to help us with our work back in school.
!Today we have been to Leeds City Museum. We went to look at all the Ancient Egyptian artefacts. They had loads! We had different workshops as well. In one we made amulets and in the other one we found out all about mummification! We had a great time.
We have studied the lives of Christopher Columbus and Neil Armstrong.
In our DT lesson we used everyday materials to model a boat similar to the one used by Columbus.
We spent time designing out boat discussing the features and their purpose, then we discussed the suitability of materials for our designs.
We had some funny faces whilst learning about the process of mummification today! Year 3 now know every step in the process and why the Egyptians thought it was important to do this.
Year 3 have been learning about what the Ancient Egyptians used pyramids for and why they were important. We have created our own pyramids ourselves thinking about how many sugar cubes we needed for each layer. We then placed them all together to form an Egyptian desert setting! We had lots of fun!
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ENGLISH
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NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust
English is a widely used language across the world. To improve your English communication skills, the CBSE Class 10 syllabus focuses on English Grammar, English Comprehension and English Composition. There are several reading and writing exercises on TopperLearning to study the topics present in the CBSE Class 10 English syllabus.
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Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust Exercise 20
Horace Danby liked to collect rare, expensive books.
Horace Danby stole every year to buy rare, expensive books. Each year he planned carefully just what he would do, stole enough to last for twelve months, and secretly bought the books he loved to collect through an agent.
Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust Exercise 22
A woman is speaking to Horace Danby. She was young, quite pretty, and was dressed in red.
The woman is the real culprit in the story. She managed to convince Horace that she was the lady of the house whose husband was away for a month and got him to break open the safe and give her the jewels. Not only did she escape with the jewels but because his fingerprints were all over the safe and the room he was arrested by the police.
Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust Exercise 25
Yes, we begin to suspect before the end of the story that the lady was not the person Horace Danby took her to be. Had she been the true lady of the house she would not have been so calm and composed on seeing an intruder in her house. She does not raise an alarm nor does she call the police. Instead she asks the thief to help her open up the safe and take out her jewels. This behaviour is strange and at this point one realises that she is not the person Horace Danby took her to be.
The lady manages to deceive Horace Danby into thinking she is the lady of the house from her appearance, her voice and mannerisms. She was quite pretty, and was dressed in red like the lady of the house would be. She spoke with a quiet, kindly voice but with firmness in it. She informed him that she had heard his sneezing from the top of the house implying that, that was where she had her room. She walked to the fireplace and straightened the ornaments there showing her familiarity with the place. The dog Sherry was rubbing against her and she spoke to it in a casual manner and said he was behaving like she had been away for a month. She was very confident and casual in her behaviour and so Horace does not suspect that something is wrong.
The description is apt for Horace Danby because everyone thought that he was a good and honest citizen. He was about fifty years old and unmarried, and he lived with a housekeeper who worried over his health. He was usually very well and happy except for attacks of hay fever in summer. He made locks and was successful enough at his business to have two helpers.
However, although he was good and respectable he was not completely honest because fifteen years ago, Horace had served his first and only sentence in a prison library. He robbed only from those who had a lot of money and used the money secretly to buy rare, expensive books. Although the intention of buying books was good the fact that he had to steal to achieve this end showed that he was not completely honest.
He cannot be categorised as a typical thief because he robbed only from those who had a lot of money and used the money secretly to buy rare, expensive books through an agent. Besides, he didn’t rob often but a safe every year. Each year he planned carefully just what he would do and stole enough to last him for twelve months.
Horace Danby was a meticulous planner and considered himself a successful robber but still he faltered. Before he decided to rob the house at Shotover Grange he had studied it for two weeks. He had looked at its rooms, its electric wiring, its paths and its garden. He knew that the two servants, who remained in the Grange while the family was in London, had gone to the movies and so planned to rob the house at that time. He had even learned the name of the dog.
However in his eagerness to please the lady of the house and seeing that she might help him escape, he took off his gloves and gave her his cigarette lighter. A little later when she asked him to break open the safe and retrieve her jewels trusting her totally he opened the safe for her without putting back his gloves and as a result his fingerprints were found not only on the safe but all over the room. Therefore inspite of all his meticulous planning he was fooled by the lady whom he did not realise was actually a thief herself and was finally arrested by the police.
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NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust
English is a widely used language across the world. To improve your English communication skills, the CBSE Class 10 syllabus focuses on English Grammar, English Comprehension and English Composition. There are several reading and writing exercises on TopperLearning to study the topics present in the CBSE Class 10 English syllabus.
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Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust Exercise 20
Horace Danby liked to collect rare, expensive books.
Horace Danby stole every year to buy rare, expensive books. Each year he planned carefully just what he would do, stole enough to last for twelve months, and secretly bought the books he loved to collect through an agent.
Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust Exercise 22
A woman is speaking to Horace Danby. She was young, quite pretty, and was dressed in red.
The woman is the real culprit in the story. She managed to convince Horace that she was the lady of the house whose husband was away for a month and got him to break open the safe and give her the jewels. Not only did she escape with the jewels but because his fingerprints were all over the safe and the room he was arrested by the police.
Chapter 4 - A Question Of Trust Exercise 25
Yes, we begin to suspect before the end of the story that the lady was not the person Horace Danby took her to be. Had she been the true lady of the house she would not have been so calm and composed on seeing an intruder in her house. She does not raise an alarm nor does she call the police. Instead she asks the thief to help her open up the safe and take out her jewels. This behaviour is strange and at this point one realises that she is not the person Horace Danby took her to be.
The lady manages to deceive Horace Danby into thinking she is the lady of the house from her appearance, her voice and mannerisms. She was quite pretty, and was dressed in red like the lady of the house would be. She spoke with a quiet, kindly voice but with firmness in it. She informed him that she had heard his sneezing from the top of the house implying that, that was where she had her room. She walked to the fireplace and straightened the ornaments there showing her familiarity with the place. The dog Sherry was rubbing against her and she spoke to it in a casual manner and said he was behaving like she had been away for a month. She was very confident and casual in her behaviour and so Horace does not suspect that something is wrong.
The description is apt for Horace Danby because everyone thought that he was a good and honest citizen. He was about fifty years old and unmarried, and he lived with a housekeeper who worried over his health. He was usually very well and happy except for attacks of hay fever in summer. He made locks and was successful enough at his business to have two helpers.
However, although he was good and respectable he was not completely honest because fifteen years ago, Horace had served his first and only sentence in a prison library. He robbed only from those who had a lot of money and used the money secretly to buy rare, expensive books. Although the intention of buying books was good the fact that he had to steal to achieve this end showed that he was not completely honest.
He cannot be categorised as a typical thief because he robbed only from those who had a lot of money and used the money secretly to buy rare, expensive books through an agent. Besides, he didn’t rob often but a safe every year. Each year he planned carefully just what he would do and stole enough to last him for twelve months.
Horace Danby was a meticulous planner and considered himself a successful robber but still he faltered. Before he decided to rob the house at Shotover Grange he had studied it for two weeks. He had looked at its rooms, its electric wiring, its paths and its garden. He knew that the two servants, who remained in the Grange while the family was in London, had gone to the movies and so planned to rob the house at that time. He had even learned the name of the dog.
However in his eagerness to please the lady of the house and seeing that she might help him escape, he took off his gloves and gave her his cigarette lighter. A little later when she asked him to break open the safe and retrieve her jewels trusting her totally he opened the safe for her without putting back his gloves and as a result his fingerprints were found not only on the safe but all over the room. Therefore inspite of all his meticulous planning he was fooled by the lady whom he did not realise was actually a thief herself and was finally arrested by the police.
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| 1,472
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Daily Life on the Western Frontier
Daily life for the troops of the 9th and 10th Cavalries was harsh, but, for the most part, it was similar to that of their White counterparts. During the 1860s and 70s, the frontier forts resembled little more than rundown villages, and the enlisted men’s barracks were often poorly ventilated, insect infested hovels. The only bathing facilities usually consisted of the local creek. As a result, diseases such as dysentery, bronchitis, and tuberculosis were a common problem. Rations throughout the Indian campaigns consisted mainly of beef or bacon, potatoes, beans, fresh vegetables from the post garden, and sometimes fruit or jam. The work week was seven days, with the exception of the fourth of July and Christmas. The monthly pay for a private was a mere $13.
When available, many of the African-American troops spent leisure hours in schools established to alleviate the illiteracy mandated by slavery. The schools were normally run by chaplains assigned to the Black units, for this purpose. Other leisure activities were few, especially for the African-American troops stationed in west Texas. Only a small percentage of enlisted men were able to bring their wives with them to the frontier posts. The small villages which grew up around the forts were usually little more than a collection of saloons and gambling parlors, inhabited by some of the more unsavory characters on the frontier. Here, partially due to the federal government’s harsh reconstruction policies, racial prejudice by both local citizens and law officers was severe. When disputes arose among Buffalo Soldiers and locals, the local law and juries consistently sided against the troops.
The most serious problem faced by the Army during the Indian War period was desertion. In 1868, the desertion rate for enlisted personnel was approximately 25 percent. Desertions among White regiments were roughly three times greater than those among Black units. Also, both African-American cavalry and infantry regiments had lower rates of alcoholism than their White counterparts. While in the field, both the troopers and their horses faced not only hostile Indians and outlaws, but also extended patrols of up to six months and covering more than 1,000 miles. Adding to their ordeal was the scarcity of water and the extremes of weather common to the southwest.
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] | 1
|
Daily Life on the Western Frontier
Daily life for the troops of the 9th and 10th Cavalries was harsh, but, for the most part, it was similar to that of their White counterparts. During the 1860s and 70s, the frontier forts resembled little more than rundown villages, and the enlisted men’s barracks were often poorly ventilated, insect infested hovels. The only bathing facilities usually consisted of the local creek. As a result, diseases such as dysentery, bronchitis, and tuberculosis were a common problem. Rations throughout the Indian campaigns consisted mainly of beef or bacon, potatoes, beans, fresh vegetables from the post garden, and sometimes fruit or jam. The work week was seven days, with the exception of the fourth of July and Christmas. The monthly pay for a private was a mere $13.
When available, many of the African-American troops spent leisure hours in schools established to alleviate the illiteracy mandated by slavery. The schools were normally run by chaplains assigned to the Black units, for this purpose. Other leisure activities were few, especially for the African-American troops stationed in west Texas. Only a small percentage of enlisted men were able to bring their wives with them to the frontier posts. The small villages which grew up around the forts were usually little more than a collection of saloons and gambling parlors, inhabited by some of the more unsavory characters on the frontier. Here, partially due to the federal government’s harsh reconstruction policies, racial prejudice by both local citizens and law officers was severe. When disputes arose among Buffalo Soldiers and locals, the local law and juries consistently sided against the troops.
The most serious problem faced by the Army during the Indian War period was desertion. In 1868, the desertion rate for enlisted personnel was approximately 25 percent. Desertions among White regiments were roughly three times greater than those among Black units. Also, both African-American cavalry and infantry regiments had lower rates of alcoholism than their White counterparts. While in the field, both the troopers and their horses faced not only hostile Indians and outlaws, but also extended patrols of up to six months and covering more than 1,000 miles. Adding to their ordeal was the scarcity of water and the extremes of weather common to the southwest.
| 483
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Paul Laurence Dunbar Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Childhood And Early Life
African American poet Paul Laurence Dunbar was born on the 27 June 1872 to Joseph and Matilda Murphy Dunbar. His parents were both freed slaves who separated not long after their son was born.
A bright student, Paul Laurence Dunbar was unable to go to college because of a lack of funds for further education. During his high school years he edited the Dayton Tattler, a newspaper which was published by fellow student Orville Wright.
Rise To Fame
By the time he was 14 years old, Paul Laurence Dunbar already had become a published poet when the Dayton Herald had published some of his work. After leaving high school, he found work as an elevator operator while at the same time, continuing to work on his poetry. After being invited to read his poems at a Western Association of Writers meeting, he was contacted by poet James Whitcomb Riley who admired his poems and offered him words of encouragement.
Paul Laurence Dunbar's first collection of poems was published in 1893. This self-published collection was entitled Oak & Ivy. In late 1893 he relocated to Chicago and built up literary contacts, and by 1895 his poems were starting to be published nationally as various magazines and newspapers accepted his work for publication.
Paul Laurence Dunbar's second poetry collection, Majors and Minors was published by Hadley & Hadley in 1895. This second collection won a good review from the critic William Dean Howells which increased Dunbar's reputation as a poet on a national as well as an international level. This exposure led to a tour of England, and upon his return from Europe, he was offered a clerkship at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
Publications include Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896), Folks from Dixie (1898), Lyrics of the Hearthside (1899), Poems of Cabin and Field (1899), Lyrics of Love and Laughter (1903) and Howdy, Howdy, Howdy (1905)
Paul Laurence Dunbar married Alice Ruth Moore, but the couple separated in 1902 and, later as his health failed, he lived with his mother in Dayton, Ohio. He died on the 9 February 1906.
During the late 1890s, Paul Laurence Dunbar was diagnosed with tuberculosis. He suffered a nervous breakdown in the early 1900s.
Paul Laurence Dunbar was one of the first African American poets to gain recognition.
More People From Ohio
Charles W. Fairbanks
Harvey Williams Cushing
Charles F. Kettering
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Paul Laurence Dunbar Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Childhood And Early Life
African American poet Paul Laurence Dunbar was born on the 27 June 1872 to Joseph and Matilda Murphy Dunbar. His parents were both freed slaves who separated not long after their son was born.
A bright student, Paul Laurence Dunbar was unable to go to college because of a lack of funds for further education. During his high school years he edited the Dayton Tattler, a newspaper which was published by fellow student Orville Wright.
Rise To Fame
By the time he was 14 years old, Paul Laurence Dunbar already had become a published poet when the Dayton Herald had published some of his work. After leaving high school, he found work as an elevator operator while at the same time, continuing to work on his poetry. After being invited to read his poems at a Western Association of Writers meeting, he was contacted by poet James Whitcomb Riley who admired his poems and offered him words of encouragement.
Paul Laurence Dunbar's first collection of poems was published in 1893. This self-published collection was entitled Oak & Ivy. In late 1893 he relocated to Chicago and built up literary contacts, and by 1895 his poems were starting to be published nationally as various magazines and newspapers accepted his work for publication.
Paul Laurence Dunbar's second poetry collection, Majors and Minors was published by Hadley & Hadley in 1895. This second collection won a good review from the critic William Dean Howells which increased Dunbar's reputation as a poet on a national as well as an international level. This exposure led to a tour of England, and upon his return from Europe, he was offered a clerkship at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
Publications include Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896), Folks from Dixie (1898), Lyrics of the Hearthside (1899), Poems of Cabin and Field (1899), Lyrics of Love and Laughter (1903) and Howdy, Howdy, Howdy (1905)
Paul Laurence Dunbar married Alice Ruth Moore, but the couple separated in 1902 and, later as his health failed, he lived with his mother in Dayton, Ohio. He died on the 9 February 1906.
During the late 1890s, Paul Laurence Dunbar was diagnosed with tuberculosis. He suffered a nervous breakdown in the early 1900s.
Paul Laurence Dunbar was one of the first African American poets to gain recognition.
More People From Ohio
Charles W. Fairbanks
Harvey Williams Cushing
Charles F. Kettering
| 594
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Obedience is a characteristic ingrained in every person. No matter who a person is, there is always a more authoritative figure that they must obey to. Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, conducted experiments that tested obedience towards authority. These experiments were conducted in 1963 at Yale University. The experiments Milgram performed gained many different reactions from people. Two authors that wrote their thoughts on the experiments done by Milgram are Diana Baumrind and Richard Herrnstein. Diana Baumrind, who wrote the “Review of Stanley Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience”, believes that the experiments Milgram conducted were not necessary and should not have been conducted unless the subject knew the harms that could occur after the experiment was done. Baumrind is a psychologist, who was employed at the Institute of Human Development at the University of California, Berkley at the time that Milgram’s experiment was performed. Richard Herrnstein has a different belief. Herrnstein, the author of the article “Review of Stanley Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience”, believes Milgram’s experiments were well done and show great potential of what we are able to do in the future. Milgram’s experiment is valid because it was conducted in an appropriate setting, there was minimal psychological harm done, and it contained valuable results.
The experiments conducted by Milgram consisted of two different subjects. The first subject was named the “teacher”. The teacher’s role to read lists of word pairs to the second subject. The second subject was named the “learner”. The learner’s role was to remember and recite the second word in the word pair when he was given the first one. The learner was strapped in a miniature version of an electric chair and was told they would receive electric shocks (given by the teacher) intensifying from fifteen to four hundred fifty volts each time they got a word pair incorrect. Milgram explained to the teacher that the experiment was to test if pain had an impact on learning. This was not the true experiment though. Although it was not revealed to the teacher, the learner was really just an actor and was not being harmed in any way. The true experiment, says Milgram in his article, was to test obedience to authority.
Before this experiment was conducted Milgram sought out predictions from other people in addition to his own. The predictions, which were made by Milgram as well as, “psychiatrists, college sophomores, and middle-class adults”(Milgram 320), stated that very few, if any, people would “obey” the experimenter. These predictions proved to be inaccurate and, in turn, made the results seem astonishing. Milgram’s results from the experiment conducted on Yale undergrads showed that twenty-five out of the forty people tested obeyed the experimenter through the end. Having people unsatisfied with the results, Milgram tested again on another group of people. The people that were tested the second time were “ordinary” people, compared to the “highly aggressive bunch”(Milgram 320) that the Yale students were said to be. These ordinary people ranged from professionals to unemployed people. The results in the second experiment had roughly the same results, stated Milgram. He said that in his second experiment sixty percent of the people were obedient to the end. His results demonstrated that people are very likely to be obedient towards authoritative persons.
It has been questioned whether the setting could have or did affect the experiment. If the setting were in a more comfortable place people would have not been as obedient; this is the opinion that some people share. Other people believe that the setting would not change the experiment or its results. Baumrind believes that the setting did in fact cause the experiment to be inaccurate. She explains that since it was an “unfamiliar” setting, it caused the subjects to be more obedient. She sets up...
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Obedience is a characteristic ingrained in every person. No matter who a person is, there is always a more authoritative figure that they must obey to. Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, conducted experiments that tested obedience towards authority. These experiments were conducted in 1963 at Yale University. The experiments Milgram performed gained many different reactions from people. Two authors that wrote their thoughts on the experiments done by Milgram are Diana Baumrind and Richard Herrnstein. Diana Baumrind, who wrote the “Review of Stanley Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience”, believes that the experiments Milgram conducted were not necessary and should not have been conducted unless the subject knew the harms that could occur after the experiment was done. Baumrind is a psychologist, who was employed at the Institute of Human Development at the University of California, Berkley at the time that Milgram’s experiment was performed. Richard Herrnstein has a different belief. Herrnstein, the author of the article “Review of Stanley Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience”, believes Milgram’s experiments were well done and show great potential of what we are able to do in the future. Milgram’s experiment is valid because it was conducted in an appropriate setting, there was minimal psychological harm done, and it contained valuable results.
The experiments conducted by Milgram consisted of two different subjects. The first subject was named the “teacher”. The teacher’s role to read lists of word pairs to the second subject. The second subject was named the “learner”. The learner’s role was to remember and recite the second word in the word pair when he was given the first one. The learner was strapped in a miniature version of an electric chair and was told they would receive electric shocks (given by the teacher) intensifying from fifteen to four hundred fifty volts each time they got a word pair incorrect. Milgram explained to the teacher that the experiment was to test if pain had an impact on learning. This was not the true experiment though. Although it was not revealed to the teacher, the learner was really just an actor and was not being harmed in any way. The true experiment, says Milgram in his article, was to test obedience to authority.
Before this experiment was conducted Milgram sought out predictions from other people in addition to his own. The predictions, which were made by Milgram as well as, “psychiatrists, college sophomores, and middle-class adults”(Milgram 320), stated that very few, if any, people would “obey” the experimenter. These predictions proved to be inaccurate and, in turn, made the results seem astonishing. Milgram’s results from the experiment conducted on Yale undergrads showed that twenty-five out of the forty people tested obeyed the experimenter through the end. Having people unsatisfied with the results, Milgram tested again on another group of people. The people that were tested the second time were “ordinary” people, compared to the “highly aggressive bunch”(Milgram 320) that the Yale students were said to be. These ordinary people ranged from professionals to unemployed people. The results in the second experiment had roughly the same results, stated Milgram. He said that in his second experiment sixty percent of the people were obedient to the end. His results demonstrated that people are very likely to be obedient towards authoritative persons.
It has been questioned whether the setting could have or did affect the experiment. If the setting were in a more comfortable place people would have not been as obedient; this is the opinion that some people share. Other people believe that the setting would not change the experiment or its results. Baumrind believes that the setting did in fact cause the experiment to be inaccurate. She explains that since it was an “unfamiliar” setting, it caused the subjects to be more obedient. She sets up...
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ENGLISH
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Have you ever heard Jesus referred to as “Jesus of Nazareth” or “the Nazarene”? What does that mean?
Jesus grew up in a town called Nazareth. Thus, He has been called “Jesus of Nazareth” in the same way you might say “Bobby from New York” or “Cindy from London.” Especially since Jesus wasn’t an uncommon name in His time, adding “of Nazareth” helped people know who was being talked about.
However, Jesus being from Nazareth means a bit more than your cousin Bobby hailing from New York.
A Little Town Called Bethlehem
Though Jesus grew up in Nazareth, He wasn’t born there.
Jesus was born to a virgin, Mary, who was engaged to a man named Joseph. Luke 2 records that at that time there was a census, for which Joseph had to travel to Bethlehem in Judea because of his lineage from David. Mary, pregnant with Jesus at the time by the power of the Holy Spirit, came with him.
At some point, while they were in Bethlehem, Jesus was born. The Bible doesn’t say how long they were there before this happened, and it isn’t clear exactly how long they stayed afterward. Forty days after the birth of her son, a Jewish woman was to go to the temple for purification, which Luke records that Mary and Joseph did, after which they appear to have returned to Bethlehem. The wise men from the east came while Jesus was “a young child” and visited him at a house in Bethlehem, which was probably a year or two later.
The family left Bethlehem and fled to Egypt after Joseph was warned to leave in a dream. This was because King Herod decided to have all boys under two years old in and around Bethlehem killed. Herod had heard about the new “king of the Jews” from the wise men and was determined to eliminate the threat to his power. This, then, ended the family’s time in Bethlehem.
After Herod died, an angel told Joseph in a dream that it was safe to return to Israel. Depending on when scholars date events in the life of Jesus, the answer for how long they remained in Egypt will vary, but it was most likely less than two years. After the dream, Matthew 2:21-23 records:
So he [Joseph] got up, took the child and his mother and went to the land of Israel. But when he heard that Archelaus was reigning in Judea in place of his father Herod, he was afraid to go there. Having been warned in a dream, he withdrew to the district of Galilee, and he went and lived in a town called Nazareth. So was fulfilled what was said through the prophets, that he would be called a Nazarene.
Thus, Jesus, most likely around two to four years old, finally landed in the town in which he would grow up.
The Town of Nazareth
Nazareth is located in the modern country of Israel. In Jesus’ time, Nazareth was located in southern Galilee, which was north of Judea (where Bethlehem and Jerusalem were). Galilee was geographically somewhat separated from Judea by the non-Jewish territory of Samaria.
It’s important to realize that Jewish Judeans typically thoughtless of their northern Galilean brethren. Galileans were thought of as country “bumpkins,” and their accent was mocked by Judeans. During Jesus’ trial, Peter was suspected of being a follower of Jesus simply because of his Galilean accent (Luke 22:59).
Judeans also looked down on Galilee for its greater racial and religious mixing, where conservative Jews lived right next to pagans. Galileans were considered less sophisticated and corrupted by Gentile influence. Judeans tended to believe that Galileans were lax in following proper religious rituals. The fact that Galilee was so much farther from the temple and theological leadership in Jerusalem didn’t help matters.
Nazareth held an extra level of abhorrence for Jews: it housed a Roman garrison. Perhaps this is what led to the following conversation, recorded in John 1:45-46, between two soon-to-be disciples of Jesus:
Philip found Nathanael and told him, “We have found the one Moses wrote about in the Law, and about whom the prophets also wrote — Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph.”
“Nazareth! Can anything good come from there?” Nathanael asked.
“Come and see,” said Phillip.
Why Is Nazareth Significant?
Nazareth isn’t expressly mentioned in the Old Testament. However, Jesus coming from Nazareth did fulfill Old Testament prophecy. In Matthew 2:23, when Joseph went to Nazareth with Mary and Jesus, Matthew says, “So was fulfilled what was said through the prophets, that he would be called a Nazarene.”
Jesus being from Nazareth potentially fulfills prophecy in two different ways. First, predictions abound in the Old Testament of the coming Messiah being despised and rejected (e.g. Psalm 22, Isaiah 53). Nazareth fits that description.
Second, the prophecy of Isaiah 11:1 states, “A shoot will come up from the stump of Jesse; from his roots a Branch will bear fruit.” In this prophecy, understood to be about the coming Messiah, the word we translate as “branch” is “naser” or “netzer.” Notice the similarities of “naser” to Nazarene, or “netzer” to Nazareth. Some, including many early church leaders like Jerome, point to this as a play on words.
Jesus chose not to be born in a palace; we celebrate His lowly birth at Christmas. But He also didn’t choose to grow up in a religiously prestigious place like Jerusalem. He came from the “country-bumpkin,” religiously lacking land of Galilee, from the frowned-upon town of Nazareth.
He was doing something new, and it was all about God, not grandeur — forgiveness, not pharisaical laws. Our Savior’s humble childhood in Nazareth reminds us that He came for the Jews and the Gentiles, the rich and the poor, the respected and the maligned — for us all.
©iStock/Getty Images Plus/mbolina
Alyssa Roat is a literary agent at C.Y.L.E., the publicity manager at Mountain Brook Ink, and a freelance editor with Sherpa Editing Services. Her passions for Biblical study and creativity collide in her writing. More than a hundred of her works have been featured in publications ranging from The Christian Communicator to Keys for Kids. Find out more about her here and on social media @alyssawrote.
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Have you ever heard Jesus referred to as “Jesus of Nazareth” or “the Nazarene”? What does that mean?
Jesus grew up in a town called Nazareth. Thus, He has been called “Jesus of Nazareth” in the same way you might say “Bobby from New York” or “Cindy from London.” Especially since Jesus wasn’t an uncommon name in His time, adding “of Nazareth” helped people know who was being talked about.
However, Jesus being from Nazareth means a bit more than your cousin Bobby hailing from New York.
A Little Town Called Bethlehem
Though Jesus grew up in Nazareth, He wasn’t born there.
Jesus was born to a virgin, Mary, who was engaged to a man named Joseph. Luke 2 records that at that time there was a census, for which Joseph had to travel to Bethlehem in Judea because of his lineage from David. Mary, pregnant with Jesus at the time by the power of the Holy Spirit, came with him.
At some point, while they were in Bethlehem, Jesus was born. The Bible doesn’t say how long they were there before this happened, and it isn’t clear exactly how long they stayed afterward. Forty days after the birth of her son, a Jewish woman was to go to the temple for purification, which Luke records that Mary and Joseph did, after which they appear to have returned to Bethlehem. The wise men from the east came while Jesus was “a young child” and visited him at a house in Bethlehem, which was probably a year or two later.
The family left Bethlehem and fled to Egypt after Joseph was warned to leave in a dream. This was because King Herod decided to have all boys under two years old in and around Bethlehem killed. Herod had heard about the new “king of the Jews” from the wise men and was determined to eliminate the threat to his power. This, then, ended the family’s time in Bethlehem.
After Herod died, an angel told Joseph in a dream that it was safe to return to Israel. Depending on when scholars date events in the life of Jesus, the answer for how long they remained in Egypt will vary, but it was most likely less than two years. After the dream, Matthew 2:21-23 records:
So he [Joseph] got up, took the child and his mother and went to the land of Israel. But when he heard that Archelaus was reigning in Judea in place of his father Herod, he was afraid to go there. Having been warned in a dream, he withdrew to the district of Galilee, and he went and lived in a town called Nazareth. So was fulfilled what was said through the prophets, that he would be called a Nazarene.
Thus, Jesus, most likely around two to four years old, finally landed in the town in which he would grow up.
The Town of Nazareth
Nazareth is located in the modern country of Israel. In Jesus’ time, Nazareth was located in southern Galilee, which was north of Judea (where Bethlehem and Jerusalem were). Galilee was geographically somewhat separated from Judea by the non-Jewish territory of Samaria.
It’s important to realize that Jewish Judeans typically thoughtless of their northern Galilean brethren. Galileans were thought of as country “bumpkins,” and their accent was mocked by Judeans. During Jesus’ trial, Peter was suspected of being a follower of Jesus simply because of his Galilean accent (Luke 22:59).
Judeans also looked down on Galilee for its greater racial and religious mixing, where conservative Jews lived right next to pagans. Galileans were considered less sophisticated and corrupted by Gentile influence. Judeans tended to believe that Galileans were lax in following proper religious rituals. The fact that Galilee was so much farther from the temple and theological leadership in Jerusalem didn’t help matters.
Nazareth held an extra level of abhorrence for Jews: it housed a Roman garrison. Perhaps this is what led to the following conversation, recorded in John 1:45-46, between two soon-to-be disciples of Jesus:
Philip found Nathanael and told him, “We have found the one Moses wrote about in the Law, and about whom the prophets also wrote — Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph.”
“Nazareth! Can anything good come from there?” Nathanael asked.
“Come and see,” said Phillip.
Why Is Nazareth Significant?
Nazareth isn’t expressly mentioned in the Old Testament. However, Jesus coming from Nazareth did fulfill Old Testament prophecy. In Matthew 2:23, when Joseph went to Nazareth with Mary and Jesus, Matthew says, “So was fulfilled what was said through the prophets, that he would be called a Nazarene.”
Jesus being from Nazareth potentially fulfills prophecy in two different ways. First, predictions abound in the Old Testament of the coming Messiah being despised and rejected (e.g. Psalm 22, Isaiah 53). Nazareth fits that description.
Second, the prophecy of Isaiah 11:1 states, “A shoot will come up from the stump of Jesse; from his roots a Branch will bear fruit.” In this prophecy, understood to be about the coming Messiah, the word we translate as “branch” is “naser” or “netzer.” Notice the similarities of “naser” to Nazarene, or “netzer” to Nazareth. Some, including many early church leaders like Jerome, point to this as a play on words.
Jesus chose not to be born in a palace; we celebrate His lowly birth at Christmas. But He also didn’t choose to grow up in a religiously prestigious place like Jerusalem. He came from the “country-bumpkin,” religiously lacking land of Galilee, from the frowned-upon town of Nazareth.
He was doing something new, and it was all about God, not grandeur — forgiveness, not pharisaical laws. Our Savior’s humble childhood in Nazareth reminds us that He came for the Jews and the Gentiles, the rich and the poor, the respected and the maligned — for us all.
©iStock/Getty Images Plus/mbolina
Alyssa Roat is a literary agent at C.Y.L.E., the publicity manager at Mountain Brook Ink, and a freelance editor with Sherpa Editing Services. Her passions for Biblical study and creativity collide in her writing. More than a hundred of her works have been featured in publications ranging from The Christian Communicator to Keys for Kids. Find out more about her here and on social media @alyssawrote.
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The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was born on the 15th of January, 1929, and was an American Baptist minister who went on to become an activist and was the most visible spokesperson for the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968. King was particularly known for his nonviolent approach to civil disobedience, formed by both his Christian beliefs as well as being inspired by Mahatma Gandhi.
King was infamous in America during the later stages of his life, even receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, for combating racial inequality using nonviolent means of resistance.
King visited Memphis, Tennessee in March, 1968, to support the black sanitary public works employees who were on strike at that time in pursuit of higher wages and better treatment. In one particular incident, the black employees were only paid for two hours of work when they had to return home due to bad weather, whereas white employees were paid a full day’s pay.
On the 4th of April, 1968, King was leaving his hotel room at the Lorraine motel in Memphis, Abernathy, when he was fatally wounded by James Earl Ray, who shot King in his right cheek, with the bullet travelling through his jaw and becoming lodged in his shoulder. King was rushed to hospital but ultimately succumbed to his wounds, ending the life that many have called the greatest leader in any civil rights movement in history.
King leaves behind a long legacy, and is still regarded today to be one of the best leaders that has ever been able to inspire people to achieve their ends through nonviolent means. Although he was on occasion considered to be controversial, his legacy lives on as a man that ultimately worked towards achieving racial equality in America and across the world.
Famous drummer of The Who, Keith Moon, was well known for his destructive habits when visiting hotels, in one particularly famous incident at the Holiday Inn in Flint, Michigan, he allegedly drove a Lincoln Continental into the hotel pool. Although there is little hard evidence to prove that this incident ever truly happened, the incident has gone down in history as one of Moon’s most notorious destructive acts.
At the same Holiday Inn, Moon was also allegedly responsible for starting a cake fight, as well as blowing up the toilet in his room with unknown explosives. Moon was already well-known for the destruction he would cause to hotel rooms, and the band was famously banned from a number of hotel chains permanently.
The particular indecent at the Holiday Inn in Flint, Michigan, ultimately led to the band being banned from all Holiday Inn’s across America, and the infamy of the incident making life difficult for the band to be able to book any hotel rooms in the future. It was reported that tour managers had to book rooms using pseudonyms in the future in order to avoid rejection.
On the 8th of February, 2007, Anna Nicole Smith was found dead in her hotel room, Room 607 at the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Hollywood, Florida. Smith’s friend, Tasma Brighthaupt, who was also a trained nurse, attempted to perform CPR on Smith for approximately 15 minutes until her husband, Maurice Brighthaupt, took over. She was taken to Memorial Regional Hospital where she was declared dead on arrival at 2:49 p.m.
Smith’s dead was made famous due to her living her life in the public gaze for years beforehand. There were a number of leaks surrounding her death, including 911 phone calls as well as autopsy reports. A seven-week investigation into her death was performed by Broward County Medical Examiner Joshua Perper, in conjunction with Seminole police. Perper stated on his report that Smith died of “combined drug intoxication”, where she had combined the sleeping medication chloral hydrate as the main drug. It was reported that a total of 11 drugs were found in her system, with a number of them known to negatively compete with each other, and it was ultimately that which led to her death.
The Beau-Rivage Palace is one of the oldest hotels that is still in service in Switzerland. The hotel is famous not just for its architecture, but also as being the location for the sighing of the Treaty of Lausanne, which took place on the 24th of July, 1923.
The Treaty of Lausanne was an agreement to settle the conflict that had existed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied French Republic, British Empire, Kingdom of Italy, and a number of other countries where hostilities had existed since the onset of World War I. Originally the treaty was written in French, but translations are available in nearly all major world languages. The treaty was the second attempt at a treaty after the first, the Treaty of Sevres, failed. The Treaty of Sevres originally failed because the Kingdom of Greece and the Turkish national movement fought against the previous terms which included serious loss of territory. The newer Treaty of Lausanne ended the conflict and defined the borders of the modern Turkish Republic, in the treat itself, Turkey gave up all claims to the remainder of the Ottoman Empire, and in return the Allied western nations recognised Turkish sovereignty with its new borders.
The treaty was ratified by Turkey on the 23rd of August, 1923, and all original signatories ratified the treaty soon afterwards, with the treaty ultimately coming into force on the 6th of August, 1924, when the instruments of ratification were officially deposited in Paris.
The current president of Turkey, Erdogan, is seeking revisions in the treaty, although it is unknown if this is political posturing or if he is genuinely seeking to improve the lives of Turkish peoples.
Jimi Hendrix’ favourite hotel was the Cumberland Hotel in London, which he often referred to as his ‘home away from home’. The hotel would also become the site of his death, after he took an overdose of barbiturates, dying on the morning of the 18th of September in 1970.
The Cumberland Hotel is currently listed as a luxury hotel, with a large reception area that is decorated in marble and glass, covered with lime-tinted lighting. It wasn’t always so prestigious, and back in the 1970s was a lot simpler and was more appealing to the rock stars of the day seeking a simple room to relax in after touring or playing a concert.
In the case of Jimi Hendrix, one of his closest friends and confidants told press that the hotel was where Jimi would take various young ladies in order to keep them away from other young ladies that he was seeing at the time. Although nothing is provable at this point, his friends have speculated that the stress of his lifestyle at that time was unsustainable for him, and led to his frequent, and eventually fatal, drug use.
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] | 3
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The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was born on the 15th of January, 1929, and was an American Baptist minister who went on to become an activist and was the most visible spokesperson for the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968. King was particularly known for his nonviolent approach to civil disobedience, formed by both his Christian beliefs as well as being inspired by Mahatma Gandhi.
King was infamous in America during the later stages of his life, even receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, for combating racial inequality using nonviolent means of resistance.
King visited Memphis, Tennessee in March, 1968, to support the black sanitary public works employees who were on strike at that time in pursuit of higher wages and better treatment. In one particular incident, the black employees were only paid for two hours of work when they had to return home due to bad weather, whereas white employees were paid a full day’s pay.
On the 4th of April, 1968, King was leaving his hotel room at the Lorraine motel in Memphis, Abernathy, when he was fatally wounded by James Earl Ray, who shot King in his right cheek, with the bullet travelling through his jaw and becoming lodged in his shoulder. King was rushed to hospital but ultimately succumbed to his wounds, ending the life that many have called the greatest leader in any civil rights movement in history.
King leaves behind a long legacy, and is still regarded today to be one of the best leaders that has ever been able to inspire people to achieve their ends through nonviolent means. Although he was on occasion considered to be controversial, his legacy lives on as a man that ultimately worked towards achieving racial equality in America and across the world.
Famous drummer of The Who, Keith Moon, was well known for his destructive habits when visiting hotels, in one particularly famous incident at the Holiday Inn in Flint, Michigan, he allegedly drove a Lincoln Continental into the hotel pool. Although there is little hard evidence to prove that this incident ever truly happened, the incident has gone down in history as one of Moon’s most notorious destructive acts.
At the same Holiday Inn, Moon was also allegedly responsible for starting a cake fight, as well as blowing up the toilet in his room with unknown explosives. Moon was already well-known for the destruction he would cause to hotel rooms, and the band was famously banned from a number of hotel chains permanently.
The particular indecent at the Holiday Inn in Flint, Michigan, ultimately led to the band being banned from all Holiday Inn’s across America, and the infamy of the incident making life difficult for the band to be able to book any hotel rooms in the future. It was reported that tour managers had to book rooms using pseudonyms in the future in order to avoid rejection.
On the 8th of February, 2007, Anna Nicole Smith was found dead in her hotel room, Room 607 at the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Hollywood, Florida. Smith’s friend, Tasma Brighthaupt, who was also a trained nurse, attempted to perform CPR on Smith for approximately 15 minutes until her husband, Maurice Brighthaupt, took over. She was taken to Memorial Regional Hospital where she was declared dead on arrival at 2:49 p.m.
Smith’s dead was made famous due to her living her life in the public gaze for years beforehand. There were a number of leaks surrounding her death, including 911 phone calls as well as autopsy reports. A seven-week investigation into her death was performed by Broward County Medical Examiner Joshua Perper, in conjunction with Seminole police. Perper stated on his report that Smith died of “combined drug intoxication”, where she had combined the sleeping medication chloral hydrate as the main drug. It was reported that a total of 11 drugs were found in her system, with a number of them known to negatively compete with each other, and it was ultimately that which led to her death.
The Beau-Rivage Palace is one of the oldest hotels that is still in service in Switzerland. The hotel is famous not just for its architecture, but also as being the location for the sighing of the Treaty of Lausanne, which took place on the 24th of July, 1923.
The Treaty of Lausanne was an agreement to settle the conflict that had existed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied French Republic, British Empire, Kingdom of Italy, and a number of other countries where hostilities had existed since the onset of World War I. Originally the treaty was written in French, but translations are available in nearly all major world languages. The treaty was the second attempt at a treaty after the first, the Treaty of Sevres, failed. The Treaty of Sevres originally failed because the Kingdom of Greece and the Turkish national movement fought against the previous terms which included serious loss of territory. The newer Treaty of Lausanne ended the conflict and defined the borders of the modern Turkish Republic, in the treat itself, Turkey gave up all claims to the remainder of the Ottoman Empire, and in return the Allied western nations recognised Turkish sovereignty with its new borders.
The treaty was ratified by Turkey on the 23rd of August, 1923, and all original signatories ratified the treaty soon afterwards, with the treaty ultimately coming into force on the 6th of August, 1924, when the instruments of ratification were officially deposited in Paris.
The current president of Turkey, Erdogan, is seeking revisions in the treaty, although it is unknown if this is political posturing or if he is genuinely seeking to improve the lives of Turkish peoples.
Jimi Hendrix’ favourite hotel was the Cumberland Hotel in London, which he often referred to as his ‘home away from home’. The hotel would also become the site of his death, after he took an overdose of barbiturates, dying on the morning of the 18th of September in 1970.
The Cumberland Hotel is currently listed as a luxury hotel, with a large reception area that is decorated in marble and glass, covered with lime-tinted lighting. It wasn’t always so prestigious, and back in the 1970s was a lot simpler and was more appealing to the rock stars of the day seeking a simple room to relax in after touring or playing a concert.
In the case of Jimi Hendrix, one of his closest friends and confidants told press that the hotel was where Jimi would take various young ladies in order to keep them away from other young ladies that he was seeing at the time. Although nothing is provable at this point, his friends have speculated that the stress of his lifestyle at that time was unsustainable for him, and led to his frequent, and eventually fatal, drug use.
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ENGLISH
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The potato is widely thought to have been introduced to Ireland in 1586 by an American, Sir Walter Raleigh. However, the potatoes grown by Raleigh were not the potatoes we know today. Raleigh’s potato was a sweet potato and some people believe that the potato as we know it was not introduced into Ireland until 1590, when it was first planted by a shipwrecked Spanish sailor.
Whatever way it happened in reality, potato-growing spread very quickly to many parts of Ireland, and eventually the vegetable became a staple food of the peasantry. Ireland’s rural population grew rapidly in the Nineteenth Century, due to the fact that children would take care of their parents in later life. However, this also meant that large families needed large amounts of food and the land situation in Ireland was not geared to support large families. The potato crop was very vulnerable to disease and no cure existed in Ireland for potato blight. Even if a cure had existed, it would not have been affordable.
In 1844, a new form of potato blight was identified in America which turned a potato into a mushy mess that was completely inedible. By this time, a third of Irish people were completely dependent on the potato. What was expected to be a bumper harvest in 1845 turned into a national disaster as the crop across the country had failed with a 50% loss of potatoes in this year. Each family always grew what they needed for that year and held little or nothing in reserve. The problem got worse in 1846 when that years crop was almost a total failure and there was a very poor harvest in 1847. Three disastrous years in succession presented Ireland with problems on a scale never seen before.
Between 1846 and 1850, the population of Ireland dropped by 2 million which represented 25% of the total population. This figure of 2 million can by effectively split in two. One million died of starvation or the diseases associated with the famine and one million emigrated to North America or parts of England and Scotland. Many found that the areas where they settled were not welcoming as the Irish were seen as people who undercut wages.
Ireland continued to suffer de-population after the famine ended. Many young Irish families saw their futures in America and not Ireland. This affected Ireland as those who were most active and who could contribute the most to Ireland, left the country. Irish culture was severely hit by the famine. The sharp decline in the speaking of Gaelic has been specifically linked to this period in Irish history. The areas where Gaelic was at its strongest – in the west of Ireland – were the areas hit the hardest by the famine, both in terms of deaths and emigration.
Nowadays, Ireland's relationship with the potato is not quite as strong as it was. It is still widely eaten, especially in rural areas but is often substituted with rice or pasta as the dependence wanes. The potato will always have a huge place is Irish history as the Great Famine lead to a million Irish planting their family tree elsewhere and becoming such a huge part of countries the world over. The famine is also seen as the a turning point in the Irish struggle for independence.
When you visit Ireland, there are a huge number of monuments to the Great Famine of the mid-1800s. The town of Cobh in County Cork saw 2.5 million emigrants through its port in the 100 years after the famine. In Cobh you can learn the story of Annie Moore who became the first ever emigrant to be processed in Ellis Island when it officially opened on 1st January 1892. Dunbrody Famine Ship, Strokestown House & Famine Museum and the Famine Memorial in Dublin all remain as lasting tributes to those who lost their lives or were forced to emigrate as a result of the famine. Our East Coast Excursion trip includes a day at Dunbrody Famine ship, offering an immersive look at the life of famine time emigrants. Follow the link for more details.
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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https://blog.crystal-travel.com/irelands-relationship-with-the-potato
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00247.warc.gz
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The potato is widely thought to have been introduced to Ireland in 1586 by an American, Sir Walter Raleigh. However, the potatoes grown by Raleigh were not the potatoes we know today. Raleigh’s potato was a sweet potato and some people believe that the potato as we know it was not introduced into Ireland until 1590, when it was first planted by a shipwrecked Spanish sailor.
Whatever way it happened in reality, potato-growing spread very quickly to many parts of Ireland, and eventually the vegetable became a staple food of the peasantry. Ireland’s rural population grew rapidly in the Nineteenth Century, due to the fact that children would take care of their parents in later life. However, this also meant that large families needed large amounts of food and the land situation in Ireland was not geared to support large families. The potato crop was very vulnerable to disease and no cure existed in Ireland for potato blight. Even if a cure had existed, it would not have been affordable.
In 1844, a new form of potato blight was identified in America which turned a potato into a mushy mess that was completely inedible. By this time, a third of Irish people were completely dependent on the potato. What was expected to be a bumper harvest in 1845 turned into a national disaster as the crop across the country had failed with a 50% loss of potatoes in this year. Each family always grew what they needed for that year and held little or nothing in reserve. The problem got worse in 1846 when that years crop was almost a total failure and there was a very poor harvest in 1847. Three disastrous years in succession presented Ireland with problems on a scale never seen before.
Between 1846 and 1850, the population of Ireland dropped by 2 million which represented 25% of the total population. This figure of 2 million can by effectively split in two. One million died of starvation or the diseases associated with the famine and one million emigrated to North America or parts of England and Scotland. Many found that the areas where they settled were not welcoming as the Irish were seen as people who undercut wages.
Ireland continued to suffer de-population after the famine ended. Many young Irish families saw their futures in America and not Ireland. This affected Ireland as those who were most active and who could contribute the most to Ireland, left the country. Irish culture was severely hit by the famine. The sharp decline in the speaking of Gaelic has been specifically linked to this period in Irish history. The areas where Gaelic was at its strongest – in the west of Ireland – were the areas hit the hardest by the famine, both in terms of deaths and emigration.
Nowadays, Ireland's relationship with the potato is not quite as strong as it was. It is still widely eaten, especially in rural areas but is often substituted with rice or pasta as the dependence wanes. The potato will always have a huge place is Irish history as the Great Famine lead to a million Irish planting their family tree elsewhere and becoming such a huge part of countries the world over. The famine is also seen as the a turning point in the Irish struggle for independence.
When you visit Ireland, there are a huge number of monuments to the Great Famine of the mid-1800s. The town of Cobh in County Cork saw 2.5 million emigrants through its port in the 100 years after the famine. In Cobh you can learn the story of Annie Moore who became the first ever emigrant to be processed in Ellis Island when it officially opened on 1st January 1892. Dunbrody Famine Ship, Strokestown House & Famine Museum and the Famine Memorial in Dublin all remain as lasting tributes to those who lost their lives or were forced to emigrate as a result of the famine. Our East Coast Excursion trip includes a day at Dunbrody Famine ship, offering an immersive look at the life of famine time emigrants. Follow the link for more details.
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Harriet Tubman: 10 Facts
By: Linnea Crowther
3 years ago
In April 2016, Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that Harriet Tubman will be honored on the new $20 bill. Tubman was a legend in her own time, escaping from slavery and returning to rescue dozens of other slaves as a “conductor” of the Underground Railroad. To help preserve the memory of this fearless crusader, here are 10 crucial facts about her life and work.
1. Tubman was born into slavery and endured a horrific life as young girl. She was often sent away from her family, hired out to other households. She was beaten regularly, once so severely that she was left with permanent epilepsy. And her family was broken up, three of her sisters sold to a faraway household and never seen again.
2. Her mother, Rit Green, was an early inspiration to her. After losing three daughters to the slave trade, Green received word that her youngest son, Moses, was also going to be sold. She hid the boy for a month, and when the plantation owner and a slave trader came to take him, Green yelled out, “You are after my son; but the first man that comes into my house, I will split his head open.” The sale was cancelled, and Tubman learned a valuable lesson about the power of resistance.
3. Tubman's first escape attempt was a bust – her two brothers, with whom she ran, decided to go back and insisted that she go with them. The second time, she went alone, relying on brave strangers who smuggled her from Maryland via the Underground Railroad. Her entrance into the free state of Pennsylvania felt magical, she later recalled: “There was such a glory over everything; the sun came like gold through the trees, and over the fields, and I felt like I was in Heaven.”
4. Soon after she arrived in Pennsylvania, Tubman began missing her family. This homesickness was the spark that turned her into a freedom fighter. She helped a niece escape, moved on to free her brother Moses, and was soon helping non-family members find their freedom too. As she ferried more than 70 escaped slaves through the Underground Railroad over the course of many journeys back to Maryland, Tubman was particularly proud of the fact that she “never lost a passenger.” Sometimes this required force. The terror of being caught made some refugees want to give up and return to captivity. Tubman had to keep them with the group for everyone's safety, and she wasn't above threatening them with the gun she carried for self-defense.
5. Two of the last slaves she rescued from Maryland were her parents. Once they were free and in the north, Tubman's parents began helping escaped slaves themselves, paying forward their daughter's good work.
6. Though Tubman was married twice, she didn't have any children… or maybe she did. One of her “rescues” was of a young girl named Margaret who was apparently living happily with free parents in Maryland. No one could explain why Tubman would separate Margaret from her family when slavery wasn't involved, but it was noted that there was more than a passing resemblance between Tubman and the girl. There has been much speculation that Margaret was Tubman's daughter.
7. When the Civil War began, Tubman worked right alongside the Union soldiers to fight for northern victory. She served as a nurse and a scout, and she assisted with a raid on a group of plantations, during which more than 700 slaves were freed.
8. After the Civil War was won and slavery ended, Tubman turned her activism toward women's rights. She worked with Susan B. Anthony and others to further the cause of women's suffrage.
9. Though Tubman was widely known and admired during her lifetime, she was often poor, even penniless. She didn't receive any compensation for her service to her country during the Civil War, and the consequence of all the time she spent on humanitarian work was that she had little time to devote to a paying job. To make matters worse, she lost $2,000 to con men in 1873 – the equivalent of more than $50,000 today.
10. In 1903, Tubman donated a piece of her land to the AME Zion Church, to be used to build a home for “aged and indigent colored people.” Eight years later, her health had failed so drastically that she had to be admitted to the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged. On March 10, 1913, Tubman died there of pneumonia, aged 93. Her fascinating journey had come to an end, but her legacy endures even a century after her death. Harriet Tubman remains an American icon of freedom.
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|
Harriet Tubman: 10 Facts
By: Linnea Crowther
3 years ago
In April 2016, Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that Harriet Tubman will be honored on the new $20 bill. Tubman was a legend in her own time, escaping from slavery and returning to rescue dozens of other slaves as a “conductor” of the Underground Railroad. To help preserve the memory of this fearless crusader, here are 10 crucial facts about her life and work.
1. Tubman was born into slavery and endured a horrific life as young girl. She was often sent away from her family, hired out to other households. She was beaten regularly, once so severely that she was left with permanent epilepsy. And her family was broken up, three of her sisters sold to a faraway household and never seen again.
2. Her mother, Rit Green, was an early inspiration to her. After losing three daughters to the slave trade, Green received word that her youngest son, Moses, was also going to be sold. She hid the boy for a month, and when the plantation owner and a slave trader came to take him, Green yelled out, “You are after my son; but the first man that comes into my house, I will split his head open.” The sale was cancelled, and Tubman learned a valuable lesson about the power of resistance.
3. Tubman's first escape attempt was a bust – her two brothers, with whom she ran, decided to go back and insisted that she go with them. The second time, she went alone, relying on brave strangers who smuggled her from Maryland via the Underground Railroad. Her entrance into the free state of Pennsylvania felt magical, she later recalled: “There was such a glory over everything; the sun came like gold through the trees, and over the fields, and I felt like I was in Heaven.”
4. Soon after she arrived in Pennsylvania, Tubman began missing her family. This homesickness was the spark that turned her into a freedom fighter. She helped a niece escape, moved on to free her brother Moses, and was soon helping non-family members find their freedom too. As she ferried more than 70 escaped slaves through the Underground Railroad over the course of many journeys back to Maryland, Tubman was particularly proud of the fact that she “never lost a passenger.” Sometimes this required force. The terror of being caught made some refugees want to give up and return to captivity. Tubman had to keep them with the group for everyone's safety, and she wasn't above threatening them with the gun she carried for self-defense.
5. Two of the last slaves she rescued from Maryland were her parents. Once they were free and in the north, Tubman's parents began helping escaped slaves themselves, paying forward their daughter's good work.
6. Though Tubman was married twice, she didn't have any children… or maybe she did. One of her “rescues” was of a young girl named Margaret who was apparently living happily with free parents in Maryland. No one could explain why Tubman would separate Margaret from her family when slavery wasn't involved, but it was noted that there was more than a passing resemblance between Tubman and the girl. There has been much speculation that Margaret was Tubman's daughter.
7. When the Civil War began, Tubman worked right alongside the Union soldiers to fight for northern victory. She served as a nurse and a scout, and she assisted with a raid on a group of plantations, during which more than 700 slaves were freed.
8. After the Civil War was won and slavery ended, Tubman turned her activism toward women's rights. She worked with Susan B. Anthony and others to further the cause of women's suffrage.
9. Though Tubman was widely known and admired during her lifetime, she was often poor, even penniless. She didn't receive any compensation for her service to her country during the Civil War, and the consequence of all the time she spent on humanitarian work was that she had little time to devote to a paying job. To make matters worse, she lost $2,000 to con men in 1873 – the equivalent of more than $50,000 today.
10. In 1903, Tubman donated a piece of her land to the AME Zion Church, to be used to build a home for “aged and indigent colored people.” Eight years later, her health had failed so drastically that she had to be admitted to the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged. On March 10, 1913, Tubman died there of pneumonia, aged 93. Her fascinating journey had come to an end, but her legacy endures even a century after her death. Harriet Tubman remains an American icon of freedom.
| 1,002
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Friday, December 13th 2019, 8:50 pm - With each passing years, new studies reveal a world more polluted by microplastics than previously believed.
Our civilization has produced a lot of plastic products, and 2019 was replete with stories about microplastics being found in more and more parts of our environment.
Not only are they all over the place, they're also very well travelled. In August this year, a new study announced they were present in Arctic ice (specifically, in Lancaster Sound in Canada's Arctic). That same month, a U.S. survey of the Rocky Mountains found microplastics in 90 per cent of their samples -- the stuff had been literally raining from the sky.
If it's appearing in rain, it's obviously not beyond the realm of possibility that it would appear in snow, and indeed, surveys of snow in the Alps and on offshore ice between Greenland and Norway have found microplastic traces -- the with Alps' samples being around 14 times more concentrated.
Now, researchers who examined the snows of California's Sierra Nevada, say they've found traces of the stuff there as well.
"Microplastic particles were identified visually and categorized based on shape, size, and coloUr," reads the abstract of a presentation of the results at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union Thursday. "Initial results demonstrate microplastic contamination of Sierra Nevada snow, with a dominance of microfibers."
The research was put together by researchers from Nevada's Desert Research Institute.
The idea of microplastics being found in the Sierra Nevada, far from major populated areas, isn't surprising, when you consider that they can be carried hundreds of kilometres by the wind. We don't have any data on how much microplastics to expect in Canadian snows outside of the Arctic, but it's likely only a matter of time, given how much more seriously the issue is being studied now.
|
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https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca/news/article/news-microplastics-detected-in-the-snows-of-the-sierra-nevada
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] | 4
|
Friday, December 13th 2019, 8:50 pm - With each passing years, new studies reveal a world more polluted by microplastics than previously believed.
Our civilization has produced a lot of plastic products, and 2019 was replete with stories about microplastics being found in more and more parts of our environment.
Not only are they all over the place, they're also very well travelled. In August this year, a new study announced they were present in Arctic ice (specifically, in Lancaster Sound in Canada's Arctic). That same month, a U.S. survey of the Rocky Mountains found microplastics in 90 per cent of their samples -- the stuff had been literally raining from the sky.
If it's appearing in rain, it's obviously not beyond the realm of possibility that it would appear in snow, and indeed, surveys of snow in the Alps and on offshore ice between Greenland and Norway have found microplastic traces -- the with Alps' samples being around 14 times more concentrated.
Now, researchers who examined the snows of California's Sierra Nevada, say they've found traces of the stuff there as well.
"Microplastic particles were identified visually and categorized based on shape, size, and coloUr," reads the abstract of a presentation of the results at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union Thursday. "Initial results demonstrate microplastic contamination of Sierra Nevada snow, with a dominance of microfibers."
The research was put together by researchers from Nevada's Desert Research Institute.
The idea of microplastics being found in the Sierra Nevada, far from major populated areas, isn't surprising, when you consider that they can be carried hundreds of kilometres by the wind. We don't have any data on how much microplastics to expect in Canadian snows outside of the Arctic, but it's likely only a matter of time, given how much more seriously the issue is being studied now.
| 402
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Hatshepsut, whose name means «Foremost of Noble Ladies», is a notable name in history.
She lived almost three and a half thousand years ago, and ascended the throne of Egypt between 1512 BC and 1479 BC.
Her skills, efficiency and personality made her one of the most intriguing and successful pharaohs that reigned in Egypt.
She was the queen of pharaoh, King Thutmose II and after he died, she quickly installed his son on the throne as Thutmose III (1458-1425 BC). She took the title of ‘regent’ because the boy was much too young to make any decisions. As she was not his mother, she could not rule in his name.
Based on the inscription of the vizier Ineni, architect and government official of the 18th Dynasty, who during the reign of Hatshepsut, supervised several structures commissioned by her, she exercised her authority openly from the beginning, and cited only her title God’s Wife, which referred to her important function in the temple of Amun-Re and may have assured her the political support of that god’s priests.
At some point, she decided to rule the country. She was crowned king, claimed a divine right to rule based on the authority of the god Amun and began to dress as a male pharaoh and even wore the pharaoh “beard’ that was part of their sign of power. She was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty.
It is known that she was one of the best pharaohs that ever lived in Egypt. She ruled efficiently, wisely and brought success and prosperity to her land. As a pharaoh, she sent out several military expeditions mainly to the regions of Nubia and Syria and most probably to uphold the tradition of pharaoh as a warrior-king bringing prosperity into the land through conquests.
Unlike the other pharaohs, she was more focused on expanding economy and negotiating peaceful relations with neighbors.
During her ninth year of reigning she established the trade networks, which were only disrupted during the Hyksos invasion and occupation of Egypt, during the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1782 — c.1570 BC).
She sent trading expeditions to the land of Punt and returning ships were loaded with the finest goods such as myrrh, trees, ivory and gold. Hatshepsut had several building projects, built new monuments and restored some of the older structures throughout Egypt.
Perhaps one of her best building projects was the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (also known as the Djeser-Djeseru (“holiest of holy places”), a masterpiece with terraced architecture and sculptures. It was dedicated to the god Amon, and located at Deir el-Bahri («the Northern Monastery»), near the Valley of the Kings, in western Thebes.
Hatshepsut ordered both constructions and restorations. The original Precinct of Mut dedicated to the ancient great goddess of Egypt was restored after it was badly damaged during the Hyksos occupation.
After more than two decades as principal ruler of Egypt, the reign of Hatshepsut ended with her death in 1458 BC. Both her death and the events that followed her passing are still shrouded in mystery. When scientists examined her flacon, they discovered an ancient secret that could shed more light on her death.
Sometime after her death, her co-ruler, Thutmose III, ordered her name and images destroyed. The process of eliminating Hatshepsut’s memory did not begin immediately after her reign was over but it was a deliberate, carefully planned act.
It was made according to orders of her nephew, Thutmose III. His desire was to erase her legacy, and everything what was related to her, including inscriptions. No mortuary priests were appointed to perpetuate her cult and her name was omitted in the king lists of Abydos.
Did he hate her so much? Was it perhaps revenge?
Until the mid-nineteenth century, all memory of Hatshepsut’s seemed to have been lost, but fortunately — not entirely. Archaeologists found some references to her and could begin reconstruction of her place in history.
In 1902, archaeologists discovered her empty tomb. Many years later, two female mummies were discovered but one of them has long remained unidentified.
In 2007, the DNA from the tooth of the unidentified mummy helped to confirm the identity of Hatshepsut.
Written by – A. Sutherland AncientPages.com Staff Writer
Copyright © AncientPages.com All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or part without the express written permission of AncientPages.com
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Hatshepsut, whose name means «Foremost of Noble Ladies», is a notable name in history.
She lived almost three and a half thousand years ago, and ascended the throne of Egypt between 1512 BC and 1479 BC.
Her skills, efficiency and personality made her one of the most intriguing and successful pharaohs that reigned in Egypt.
She was the queen of pharaoh, King Thutmose II and after he died, she quickly installed his son on the throne as Thutmose III (1458-1425 BC). She took the title of ‘regent’ because the boy was much too young to make any decisions. As she was not his mother, she could not rule in his name.
Based on the inscription of the vizier Ineni, architect and government official of the 18th Dynasty, who during the reign of Hatshepsut, supervised several structures commissioned by her, she exercised her authority openly from the beginning, and cited only her title God’s Wife, which referred to her important function in the temple of Amun-Re and may have assured her the political support of that god’s priests.
At some point, she decided to rule the country. She was crowned king, claimed a divine right to rule based on the authority of the god Amun and began to dress as a male pharaoh and even wore the pharaoh “beard’ that was part of their sign of power. She was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty.
It is known that she was one of the best pharaohs that ever lived in Egypt. She ruled efficiently, wisely and brought success and prosperity to her land. As a pharaoh, she sent out several military expeditions mainly to the regions of Nubia and Syria and most probably to uphold the tradition of pharaoh as a warrior-king bringing prosperity into the land through conquests.
Unlike the other pharaohs, she was more focused on expanding economy and negotiating peaceful relations with neighbors.
During her ninth year of reigning she established the trade networks, which were only disrupted during the Hyksos invasion and occupation of Egypt, during the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1782 — c.1570 BC).
She sent trading expeditions to the land of Punt and returning ships were loaded with the finest goods such as myrrh, trees, ivory and gold. Hatshepsut had several building projects, built new monuments and restored some of the older structures throughout Egypt.
Perhaps one of her best building projects was the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (also known as the Djeser-Djeseru (“holiest of holy places”), a masterpiece with terraced architecture and sculptures. It was dedicated to the god Amon, and located at Deir el-Bahri («the Northern Monastery»), near the Valley of the Kings, in western Thebes.
Hatshepsut ordered both constructions and restorations. The original Precinct of Mut dedicated to the ancient great goddess of Egypt was restored after it was badly damaged during the Hyksos occupation.
After more than two decades as principal ruler of Egypt, the reign of Hatshepsut ended with her death in 1458 BC. Both her death and the events that followed her passing are still shrouded in mystery. When scientists examined her flacon, they discovered an ancient secret that could shed more light on her death.
Sometime after her death, her co-ruler, Thutmose III, ordered her name and images destroyed. The process of eliminating Hatshepsut’s memory did not begin immediately after her reign was over but it was a deliberate, carefully planned act.
It was made according to orders of her nephew, Thutmose III. His desire was to erase her legacy, and everything what was related to her, including inscriptions. No mortuary priests were appointed to perpetuate her cult and her name was omitted in the king lists of Abydos.
Did he hate her so much? Was it perhaps revenge?
Until the mid-nineteenth century, all memory of Hatshepsut’s seemed to have been lost, but fortunately — not entirely. Archaeologists found some references to her and could begin reconstruction of her place in history.
In 1902, archaeologists discovered her empty tomb. Many years later, two female mummies were discovered but one of them has long remained unidentified.
In 2007, the DNA from the tooth of the unidentified mummy helped to confirm the identity of Hatshepsut.
Written by – A. Sutherland AncientPages.com Staff Writer
Copyright © AncientPages.com All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or part without the express written permission of AncientPages.com
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Queen Mary I of England is best known for burning people of the Protestant faith and restoring England to Catholicism. She was given the nickname “Bloody Mary” because of her constant executions of Protestants. Mary reigned over England from 1553 to 1558.
Mary Tudor was born to parents Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon on February 18, 1516 in Greenwich palace. She was their only child to live through childhood and infancy. As a young girl, she lived a comfortable life as princess. At the young age of six, she was already betrothed to Charles V, but three years later the betrothal was broken off. However, Henry was angry that Catherine had not given him a son that survived past infancy. So, their marriage was annulled and Mary was declared illegitimate when Henry married Anne Boleyn in 1553. Anne was unable to give Henry a son either, though she did give birth to a daughter they named Elizabeth.
On January 7, 1536, Catherine of Aragon passed away from unknown causes, though rumour was that she was poisoned. After the annulment of her marriage with Henry, Mary was prohibited from speaking or writing to her mother. Mary was forced to leave her mother at a young age and move in with her half-sister Elizabeth and step-mother. Anne was also pregnant again, though Henry planned to execute or punish her if she did not give birth to a son. She ended up suffering through a miscarriage and was later executed in May of 1536.
Her father finally got what he wanted when he married his third wife, Jane Seymour: a son named Edward. Of his seven wives, she was the only one to give birth to a son that lived through childhood. When Henry died in 1547, Edward VI became King with Mary as his successor and Elizabeth following Mary.
For six years, Mary’s half-brother was king until his death in 1553. Mary was no longer his successor though because she, unlike her brother, was not Protestant and wished for England to return to the Church of Rome. Lady Jane Grey, Henry’s niece, was named Edward’s successor instead. Jane ruled for only nine days though.
Mary was soon declared as the rightful queen on July 19, 1553 and left for London on July 24 after spending some time in Framlingham. She officially entered London September 30, 1553 with her sister Elizabeth and Anne of Cleves, Henry’s only wife that survived past his death, with her. On October 1st, Mary was coronated and crowned Queen of England.
After reigning for only a few days, Parliament held its first meeting with their new queen. Mary quickly passed an act that stated that her parents marriage was valid. Also, Mary had an act passed that repealed the religious laws her father had set. Unlike the former, the latter act took quite some time to get passed through Parliament.
Soon, Mary began to search for a suitable husband. Many speculated and hoped she would marry one of the few descendants of the House of York, Edward Courtenay. Instead, Mary married Prince Philip of Spain, the son of her cousin Emperor Charles V. He had proposed that Mary and his son wed, and Mary eventually agreed. The public was not a huge fan of Mary’s choice in a husband though.
There were four plots in total around this time to get Mary off the throne. So, Mary hung 100 rebels and pardoned 400 others that were involved in these plots. Elizabeth and Edward Courtenay were both imprisoned in the tower because the public had wished for them to rule, not Mary. Lady Jane Grey and her husband were also executed.
Mary and Prince Philip met for the first time on July 23, 1554 and were married two days later. A physician of Mary’s declared her pregnant that September after she had showed many signs and symptoms of pregnancy.
Shortly after being declared pregnant, Mary set to work on returning England to Catholic faith. In January of 1555, John Cardmaster, John Hooper, and John Rogers were all arrested because they refused to join the Catholic church. The three of them were to be executed by being burnt at the stake. Mary continued executing Protestants, leading to the public’s hatred of her. Eventually, Mary would have about 275 people executed because of their refusal to stop practicing their faith as Protestants. This earned her the nickname “Bloody Mary”.
Before leaving for France, Philip and Mary got to work on deciding who their successors were if she was to die at childbirth, which was quite common. If it did happen, Philip would be regent. Mary did not want Elizabeth in line for the throne due to her faith, so Mary Queen of Scots fell in Elizabeth’s place instead. Philip suggested to Mary that Elizabeth marry the Duke of Savoy who was of Catholic faith. Mary refused though.
When July came around, Mary was prepared to go into labor. No child was came even after they continued to push the date back. There are many different theories as to why Mary never had the child. Perhaps she had miscarried or went through a phantom/false pregnancy, meaning she went through all the symptoms of a pregnant woman but never actually carried a child. Mary was noted to have longed to have a child of her own, but she never did.
Philip left England the following month. Mary was said to have been very in love with her husband. When he left, she fell into a state of sadness and depression. It most likely didn’t help that she had wished for a child and turned out to never have one.
While he was gone though, Mary continued burning and executing Protestants. Philip would not return home to Mary until March of 1557. England went to war with France not long after Philip’s return, and he left England once more to lead his men into battle.
Once again, Mary was thought to be pregnant after her husband had returned home for a short period of time. This time she was sure of it, though many people had a feeling she would not have the child, just like last time. When no child was born by the following April, Mary knew she would not be able to have a child.
After the second false pregnancy, Mary began to feel ill. Her health continued to get worse and worse, leading to her death. On November 17, 1558, Mary died at the age of forty-two at St. James Place. In Mary’s will, she stated she would be buried with her mother. Elizabeth had her interred in a tomb at Westminster Abbey. When Elizabeth passed away, she was placed in the same tomb as Mary.
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Queen Mary I of England is best known for burning people of the Protestant faith and restoring England to Catholicism. She was given the nickname “Bloody Mary” because of her constant executions of Protestants. Mary reigned over England from 1553 to 1558.
Mary Tudor was born to parents Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon on February 18, 1516 in Greenwich palace. She was their only child to live through childhood and infancy. As a young girl, she lived a comfortable life as princess. At the young age of six, she was already betrothed to Charles V, but three years later the betrothal was broken off. However, Henry was angry that Catherine had not given him a son that survived past infancy. So, their marriage was annulled and Mary was declared illegitimate when Henry married Anne Boleyn in 1553. Anne was unable to give Henry a son either, though she did give birth to a daughter they named Elizabeth.
On January 7, 1536, Catherine of Aragon passed away from unknown causes, though rumour was that she was poisoned. After the annulment of her marriage with Henry, Mary was prohibited from speaking or writing to her mother. Mary was forced to leave her mother at a young age and move in with her half-sister Elizabeth and step-mother. Anne was also pregnant again, though Henry planned to execute or punish her if she did not give birth to a son. She ended up suffering through a miscarriage and was later executed in May of 1536.
Her father finally got what he wanted when he married his third wife, Jane Seymour: a son named Edward. Of his seven wives, she was the only one to give birth to a son that lived through childhood. When Henry died in 1547, Edward VI became King with Mary as his successor and Elizabeth following Mary.
For six years, Mary’s half-brother was king until his death in 1553. Mary was no longer his successor though because she, unlike her brother, was not Protestant and wished for England to return to the Church of Rome. Lady Jane Grey, Henry’s niece, was named Edward’s successor instead. Jane ruled for only nine days though.
Mary was soon declared as the rightful queen on July 19, 1553 and left for London on July 24 after spending some time in Framlingham. She officially entered London September 30, 1553 with her sister Elizabeth and Anne of Cleves, Henry’s only wife that survived past his death, with her. On October 1st, Mary was coronated and crowned Queen of England.
After reigning for only a few days, Parliament held its first meeting with their new queen. Mary quickly passed an act that stated that her parents marriage was valid. Also, Mary had an act passed that repealed the religious laws her father had set. Unlike the former, the latter act took quite some time to get passed through Parliament.
Soon, Mary began to search for a suitable husband. Many speculated and hoped she would marry one of the few descendants of the House of York, Edward Courtenay. Instead, Mary married Prince Philip of Spain, the son of her cousin Emperor Charles V. He had proposed that Mary and his son wed, and Mary eventually agreed. The public was not a huge fan of Mary’s choice in a husband though.
There were four plots in total around this time to get Mary off the throne. So, Mary hung 100 rebels and pardoned 400 others that were involved in these plots. Elizabeth and Edward Courtenay were both imprisoned in the tower because the public had wished for them to rule, not Mary. Lady Jane Grey and her husband were also executed.
Mary and Prince Philip met for the first time on July 23, 1554 and were married two days later. A physician of Mary’s declared her pregnant that September after she had showed many signs and symptoms of pregnancy.
Shortly after being declared pregnant, Mary set to work on returning England to Catholic faith. In January of 1555, John Cardmaster, John Hooper, and John Rogers were all arrested because they refused to join the Catholic church. The three of them were to be executed by being burnt at the stake. Mary continued executing Protestants, leading to the public’s hatred of her. Eventually, Mary would have about 275 people executed because of their refusal to stop practicing their faith as Protestants. This earned her the nickname “Bloody Mary”.
Before leaving for France, Philip and Mary got to work on deciding who their successors were if she was to die at childbirth, which was quite common. If it did happen, Philip would be regent. Mary did not want Elizabeth in line for the throne due to her faith, so Mary Queen of Scots fell in Elizabeth’s place instead. Philip suggested to Mary that Elizabeth marry the Duke of Savoy who was of Catholic faith. Mary refused though.
When July came around, Mary was prepared to go into labor. No child was came even after they continued to push the date back. There are many different theories as to why Mary never had the child. Perhaps she had miscarried or went through a phantom/false pregnancy, meaning she went through all the symptoms of a pregnant woman but never actually carried a child. Mary was noted to have longed to have a child of her own, but she never did.
Philip left England the following month. Mary was said to have been very in love with her husband. When he left, she fell into a state of sadness and depression. It most likely didn’t help that she had wished for a child and turned out to never have one.
While he was gone though, Mary continued burning and executing Protestants. Philip would not return home to Mary until March of 1557. England went to war with France not long after Philip’s return, and he left England once more to lead his men into battle.
Once again, Mary was thought to be pregnant after her husband had returned home for a short period of time. This time she was sure of it, though many people had a feeling she would not have the child, just like last time. When no child was born by the following April, Mary knew she would not be able to have a child.
After the second false pregnancy, Mary began to feel ill. Her health continued to get worse and worse, leading to her death. On November 17, 1558, Mary died at the age of forty-two at St. James Place. In Mary’s will, she stated she would be buried with her mother. Elizabeth had her interred in a tomb at Westminster Abbey. When Elizabeth passed away, she was placed in the same tomb as Mary.
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Amariah Brigham, (born December 26, 1798, New Marlborough, Massachusetts, U.S.—died September 8, 1849, Utica, New York), American doctor and administrator who, as one of the leaders of the asylum movement in the 19th century, advocated for humane treatment of the mentally ill.
Brigham, who was orphaned at age 11, studied with several doctors before opening a medical practice when he was 21. The venture, however, was largely unsuccessful. He subsequently wrote on various health issues and taught before becoming superintendent of the Hartford Retreat for the Insane (later known as the Institute of Living) in Connecticut. At the time, many institutions for the mentally ill were known for their abusive treatment and deplorable conditions. Brigham, who believed that most mental illness could be cured, enacted practices and policies that derived from his advocacy of moral treatment, which had originated in Europe in the 18th century. The approach called for the creation of a respectful and nurturing environment similar to a domestic home while encouraging physical activity and various leisure pursuits, such as reading. Brigham also encouraged attendants to assume roles that would later be filled by trained therapists. The reforms he instituted became central to the era’s asylum movement and were widely influential. In 1842 he became superintendent of the New York State Lunatic Asylum (later called Utica State Hospital); he remained there until his death in 1849.
In 1844 Brigham was one of the 13 founders of the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane, which later became the American Psychiatric Association. That year Brigham also founded the American Journal of Insanity (later known as the American Journal of Psychiatry), one of the first English-language journals devoted exclusively to mental illness.
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Amariah Brigham, (born December 26, 1798, New Marlborough, Massachusetts, U.S.—died September 8, 1849, Utica, New York), American doctor and administrator who, as one of the leaders of the asylum movement in the 19th century, advocated for humane treatment of the mentally ill.
Brigham, who was orphaned at age 11, studied with several doctors before opening a medical practice when he was 21. The venture, however, was largely unsuccessful. He subsequently wrote on various health issues and taught before becoming superintendent of the Hartford Retreat for the Insane (later known as the Institute of Living) in Connecticut. At the time, many institutions for the mentally ill were known for their abusive treatment and deplorable conditions. Brigham, who believed that most mental illness could be cured, enacted practices and policies that derived from his advocacy of moral treatment, which had originated in Europe in the 18th century. The approach called for the creation of a respectful and nurturing environment similar to a domestic home while encouraging physical activity and various leisure pursuits, such as reading. Brigham also encouraged attendants to assume roles that would later be filled by trained therapists. The reforms he instituted became central to the era’s asylum movement and were widely influential. In 1842 he became superintendent of the New York State Lunatic Asylum (later called Utica State Hospital); he remained there until his death in 1849.
In 1844 Brigham was one of the 13 founders of the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane, which later became the American Psychiatric Association. That year Brigham also founded the American Journal of Insanity (later known as the American Journal of Psychiatry), one of the first English-language journals devoted exclusively to mental illness.
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Scientists have discovered two giant structures inside the Earth. They are located on opposite sides of our planet and their size may be compared to continents. Each of these structures is almost 100 times bigger than Mount Everest and is located at the core of the Earth, at a depth of 2900 km. Seismic studies show that the discovered formations have a different composition than the rest of the Earth’s mantle.
According to modern knowledge, the Earth is built of layers. At the very top, there is its crust, this is what we see around. Underneath is a layer of the mantle, and under it, there is a liquid outer core and a solid iron inner core.
New structures discovered beneath the Pacific Ocean and between Africa and the Atlantic unexpectedly support the ridiculed theory of the empty Earth that has existed for many years.
In 1692, famous astronomer Edmund Halley hypothesized that there is empty space inside the Earth. He suggested that underground, there are two empty structures about 800 km far from each other. According to Halley, both structures are separated by the atmosphere and rotate at different speeds, so they have their own magnetic fields.
In 1818, this idea was picked up by American scientist John Cleves Symmes Jr., who suggested that there are four empty spaces 1300 km thick inside the Earth. He said that one could reach them at the poles, which, in his opinion, contained the entrance to this underworld. Cleves Symmes even tried to organize an expedition to the North Pole, but he did not find enough funding, so the idea collapsed.
The US military, Admiral Richard E. Byrd, is a character who cannot be ignored in this context. He had been looking for entry into the underworld since 1926 when he flew over the North Pole. Three years later, he circled the South Pole. He made his first expedition in search of an entrance to the interior of the Earth in 1947. He traveled 2,750 km and, according to him, his goal was to achieve what was behind the pole, which he considered the “Great Mystery.”
Byrd probably knew that the Germans were also trying to open the entrance to the underworld. During the Nazi rule, the Thule Society was interested in this topic. The expedition plan that they prepared was also supported by Adolf Hitler, who ordered an entrance to Antarctica to be sought. Some people say that ultimately it was possible, but the discovery was classified.
In any case, many people say that the entrance to the hollow Earth exists. This is confirmed by satellite images of the North Pole, taken in 1968. A hole is visible on them, which may indicate that this is the end of one of the empty structures. However, this conclusion has not been formally confirmed yet. Only in 2014, an expedition was planned in search of penetration into this underworld, but its organizers began to disappear under mysterious circumstances. For this reason, the company ended in failure.
For many years, the theory of the hollow Earth has been ridiculed as absurd, but the truth comes out gradually. A few years ago, it was revealed to the world that deep underground, there is a lot of water, more than in the oceans of the Earth.
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Scientists have discovered two giant structures inside the Earth. They are located on opposite sides of our planet and their size may be compared to continents. Each of these structures is almost 100 times bigger than Mount Everest and is located at the core of the Earth, at a depth of 2900 km. Seismic studies show that the discovered formations have a different composition than the rest of the Earth’s mantle.
According to modern knowledge, the Earth is built of layers. At the very top, there is its crust, this is what we see around. Underneath is a layer of the mantle, and under it, there is a liquid outer core and a solid iron inner core.
New structures discovered beneath the Pacific Ocean and between Africa and the Atlantic unexpectedly support the ridiculed theory of the empty Earth that has existed for many years.
In 1692, famous astronomer Edmund Halley hypothesized that there is empty space inside the Earth. He suggested that underground, there are two empty structures about 800 km far from each other. According to Halley, both structures are separated by the atmosphere and rotate at different speeds, so they have their own magnetic fields.
In 1818, this idea was picked up by American scientist John Cleves Symmes Jr., who suggested that there are four empty spaces 1300 km thick inside the Earth. He said that one could reach them at the poles, which, in his opinion, contained the entrance to this underworld. Cleves Symmes even tried to organize an expedition to the North Pole, but he did not find enough funding, so the idea collapsed.
The US military, Admiral Richard E. Byrd, is a character who cannot be ignored in this context. He had been looking for entry into the underworld since 1926 when he flew over the North Pole. Three years later, he circled the South Pole. He made his first expedition in search of an entrance to the interior of the Earth in 1947. He traveled 2,750 km and, according to him, his goal was to achieve what was behind the pole, which he considered the “Great Mystery.”
Byrd probably knew that the Germans were also trying to open the entrance to the underworld. During the Nazi rule, the Thule Society was interested in this topic. The expedition plan that they prepared was also supported by Adolf Hitler, who ordered an entrance to Antarctica to be sought. Some people say that ultimately it was possible, but the discovery was classified.
In any case, many people say that the entrance to the hollow Earth exists. This is confirmed by satellite images of the North Pole, taken in 1968. A hole is visible on them, which may indicate that this is the end of one of the empty structures. However, this conclusion has not been formally confirmed yet. Only in 2014, an expedition was planned in search of penetration into this underworld, but its organizers began to disappear under mysterious circumstances. For this reason, the company ended in failure.
For many years, the theory of the hollow Earth has been ridiculed as absurd, but the truth comes out gradually. A few years ago, it was revealed to the world that deep underground, there is a lot of water, more than in the oceans of the Earth.
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Gnaeus Pompeius (called “the Great”) was born on 29 September 106 BCE as Gnaeus Pompeius. He received his nickname Magnus (“Great”) from the contemporaries because of his great political and military successes and his services to Rome.
Roman commander and politician. son of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo.
Pompey was born in a senatorial family. He gained his first military and political experience under the guidance of his father Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, who was a consul in 89 BCE. Under his command he took part in the Social War. In 87 BCE, when Pompey was 19, his father died, leaving him his fortune and the good name of the family.
After Sulla’s troops got to Brundisium (today’s Brindisi) in 83 BCE, he joined him with his three legions, which he managed to form near Picenum. Over time, he became Sulla’s personal proponent as he owed him the command without an initial period of office.
Military career a
In 82 BCE he took part in the conquest of Rome, and then, thanks to Sulla, he took command of units fighting with Marius‘ supporters in Sicily and in Africa. In 81 BCE he eventually defeated army of the Populares.
After the victory, he received the title of ‘Great’ (Magnus) from Sulla and, with his consent, he triumphed in Rome.Only in 78 BCE against Sulla’s will, he supported the candidacy of Marcus Aemilius Lepidusfor the consulship, which inflamed his relationship with the dictator. However, when Lepidus attempted to overthrow the Sulilian regime, Pompey protested against him. This contributed to the defeat of Lepidus and strengthened Pompey’s position in Rome.
In 77 BCE Pompey stood at the head of the troops fighting with the Marian supporters in Spain, led by Sertorius. After Sertorius’ death, as a result of conspiracy, and the final defeat of the opponent’s troops, Pompey returned to Italy and took part in the fight against the Spartacus’ troops in 71 BCE.
Together with Marcus Crassus, with the consent of the Senate, they took over the consulship in 70 BCE. Pompey became a consul, even though he did not reach the legal age and had not previously served other offices required by the so-called cursus honorum. The new consuls canceled the most restrictive part of the laws introduced during Sulla’s dictatorship, restoring, among others, tribal power.
In 67 BCE he received special privileges in the Mediterranean, thanks to which he carried out a quick, victorious campaign against the pirates.
Thanks to the intercession of Caesar and Cicero, Pompey undertook the war against Mithridates VI of Pontus. Taking advantage of Lucullus‘ previous successes in 74 BCE, he won and in 66 BCE he eventually defeated Mithridates’ army, imposing Roman authority. Then Pompey connected Pontus with the province of Bithynia in 65 BCE.
Pompey continued his campaign in Asia Minor by occupying Syria in 64 BCE and thus putting an end to the rule of the Seleucids. He entered Judea, capturing Jerusalem in 63 BCE. He created a new Roman province of Syriafrom the occupied territories. He created the entire system of politically and financially dependent countries from Rome, to which Cappadocia, Armenia and the Bosporan Kingdom were included. It can be said that in the years 66-62 BCE Pompey was the actual master of the Roman Empire.
After settling matters in the East, in 62 BCE he returned to Rome, where he triumphed. However, the Senate, fearing the increasing authority of Pompey, refused to approve his orders in the East and give land to veterans.
Thus in 60 BCE Pompey entered into an agreement with Crassus and Caesar, creating an informal First Triumvirate, providing all three with real power over the state, which allowed Pompey to force his demands. In 56 BCE the triumvirs renewed the agreement in Lucca, and Pompey received the governorship in Hispania.
In 55 BCE he was a consul along with Crassus for the second time. In the same year, in order to win the endorsement among the people, he built the first stone theater, so-called Pompey’s theater. After the death of Crassus in the battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE, there was a break of the triumvirate and a conflict occurred between Pompey and Caesar. In 52 BCE in the face of a wave of riots caused by the struggle of Milo and Clodius, he was elected a consul without a colleague in the office (sine collegae). He later led the election for the last five months as consul of his father-in-law, Metellus Scipio.
According to some sources, Caesar was supposed to mourn his rival and pay his corpses great respect, and put a kiss on his forehead.
Presumably on 10 January 49 BCE, 53-year-old Caesar, crossing the border of Italy on the River Rubicon, began a conflict with Pompey, which turned into an open war. The Senate recognized Pompey as the defender of Rome and granted him a lot of powers. Not having enough strength to oppose the legions of Caesar in Italy, Pompey got to Greece, where he managed to gather a large army.
Detailed description of the Civil War
The conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey was to decide about Rome’s future.
After his victory at Dyrrachium, which he did not use, a month later, on 9 August 48 BCE, there was a battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey’s army suffered a devastating defeat in spite of the military advantage. The defeated commander escaped to Egypt.
Evacuation to Egypt
On 28 September 48 BCE Pompey’s messengers came to Egypt. They had an audience with a ten-year-old Ptolemy XIII, for whom his guardians and advisers: Potheinus, Achillas and Theodotusreally ruled. They obtained assurance that their leader would be accepted in Egypt with appropriate honors. Pompey did not have to be afraid of anything, because it had been him who in the year 55 BCE had restored the throne of the pharaohs, the father of the present ruler – Ptolemy XII Auletes. In Egypt still stationed Roman legions consisting largely of Pompey’s former legionnaires, still from the times of the fighting with Mithridates VI. Pompey was the guardian of the royal family appointed by the Senate.
The situation, however, was not so simple. At that time in Egypt there was a civil war between supporters of the minor Ptolemy XIII, and supporters of his sister, then twenty-one-year old Cleopatra. The siblings were to rule together, according to the wishes of their father, who died in 51 BCE. However, a fight quickly took place between them. Cleopatra was banished from Egypt in April of 48 BCE, but quickly gathered an army in Syria and struck Egypt. Both armies met in the area of the Pelusium fortress, in the east of the country. However, the battle did not take place. Ptolemy’s supporters realized that supporting defeated Pompey in such conditions would result in Caesar’s immediate support for Cleopatra. Finally, the discussion about how to deal with Pompey, was interrupted by Theodotus saying “the dead do not bite”.
Meanwhile, Pompey managed to leave Thessaly and get to the island of Lesbos. He took his wife Cornelia and son Sextus from there. He then sailed along the shores of Asia Minor to Cyprus. Along the way, he collected his own soldiers who had survived and some of the slaves, of which he also created troops (numbering c. 2 000 people). They sailed in the direction of Alexandria, from where they were directed to Pelusium. Then, Achillas went to Pompey’s ship on the small boat. Two former Pompey’s officers were with him – Septimius and Savius. Many of the Pompeians present on the ship advised Pompey to sail away, as the scorn he was experiencing with such modest welcome spoke for itself. Septimius, however, from the boat, greeted Pompey like an emperor, and then Achillas began to speak in Greek. He explained that the larger ships would not het through shoal the, but it was noticed that Egyptian soldiers were embarking nearby ships. Nevertheless, Pompey decided to get on the boat. Along with him, there were also two officers, the freedman Pompey named Philip and one slave. Pompey turned to his wife and son and said in Greek: “Whoever enters the tyrant’s house is his slave, even if he has come free.” There was silence on the boat, only Pompey tried to start a conversation with Septimius, but he did not reply, only nodded. As they approached the shore, Pompey rose and leaned over to Philip’s hand as he suddenly felt a strong stabbing punch. It was Septimius who had stabbed him with his sword, others had their swords drawn, Pompey fell bloodstained, and tried to cover his face with his toga.
Septimius carried the severed head of his former commander to the king Ptolemy. Then on 28 September, there was a thirteenth anniversary of Pompey’s second triumph in Rome. Pompey’s body laid on the beach until dusk, then his freedman Philip, washed it and wrapped it in his own tunic. Then he arranged a small funeral pile and set fire to his master’s body. Then came an old man who had once served under the orders of Pompey in Spain. Only the two of them stood by the burning body of Pompey the Great, the Roman conqueror, the first Roman who had entered the Temple in Jerusalem, he was supposed to have slipped on its steps. He destroyed the kingdom of the Seleucids, existing for almost three centuries. He commanded the last and victorious battle against Spartacus, ending the uprising in Italy. Finally, he tamed pirates in the Mediterranean, who were its plague as they had been kidnapping free inhabitants of coastal lands and selling them into captivity, especially young women and children. Pompey put an end to that, and eventually himself ended up like a villain
Pompey died on 28 September 48 BCE cut with the swords of his officers. People on the ship, seeing what was happening, quickly sailed away.
On 2 October Caesar arrived in Alexandria. Theodotus went for a meeting with him, carrying Pompey’s head and his ring. Caesar, seeing the head of the rival, exploded with anger, ordered Theodotus to leave his ship immediately, and he cried himself and gave honor to the deceased, then ordering to build a proper monument. Pompey’s fortune after his death was estimated for seven hundred million sesterces.
Marriage and offspring
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Gnaeus Pompeius (called “the Great”) was born on 29 September 106 BCE as Gnaeus Pompeius. He received his nickname Magnus (“Great”) from the contemporaries because of his great political and military successes and his services to Rome.
Roman commander and politician. son of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo.
Pompey was born in a senatorial family. He gained his first military and political experience under the guidance of his father Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, who was a consul in 89 BCE. Under his command he took part in the Social War. In 87 BCE, when Pompey was 19, his father died, leaving him his fortune and the good name of the family.
After Sulla’s troops got to Brundisium (today’s Brindisi) in 83 BCE, he joined him with his three legions, which he managed to form near Picenum. Over time, he became Sulla’s personal proponent as he owed him the command without an initial period of office.
Military career a
In 82 BCE he took part in the conquest of Rome, and then, thanks to Sulla, he took command of units fighting with Marius‘ supporters in Sicily and in Africa. In 81 BCE he eventually defeated army of the Populares.
After the victory, he received the title of ‘Great’ (Magnus) from Sulla and, with his consent, he triumphed in Rome.Only in 78 BCE against Sulla’s will, he supported the candidacy of Marcus Aemilius Lepidusfor the consulship, which inflamed his relationship with the dictator. However, when Lepidus attempted to overthrow the Sulilian regime, Pompey protested against him. This contributed to the defeat of Lepidus and strengthened Pompey’s position in Rome.
In 77 BCE Pompey stood at the head of the troops fighting with the Marian supporters in Spain, led by Sertorius. After Sertorius’ death, as a result of conspiracy, and the final defeat of the opponent’s troops, Pompey returned to Italy and took part in the fight against the Spartacus’ troops in 71 BCE.
Together with Marcus Crassus, with the consent of the Senate, they took over the consulship in 70 BCE. Pompey became a consul, even though he did not reach the legal age and had not previously served other offices required by the so-called cursus honorum. The new consuls canceled the most restrictive part of the laws introduced during Sulla’s dictatorship, restoring, among others, tribal power.
In 67 BCE he received special privileges in the Mediterranean, thanks to which he carried out a quick, victorious campaign against the pirates.
Thanks to the intercession of Caesar and Cicero, Pompey undertook the war against Mithridates VI of Pontus. Taking advantage of Lucullus‘ previous successes in 74 BCE, he won and in 66 BCE he eventually defeated Mithridates’ army, imposing Roman authority. Then Pompey connected Pontus with the province of Bithynia in 65 BCE.
Pompey continued his campaign in Asia Minor by occupying Syria in 64 BCE and thus putting an end to the rule of the Seleucids. He entered Judea, capturing Jerusalem in 63 BCE. He created a new Roman province of Syriafrom the occupied territories. He created the entire system of politically and financially dependent countries from Rome, to which Cappadocia, Armenia and the Bosporan Kingdom were included. It can be said that in the years 66-62 BCE Pompey was the actual master of the Roman Empire.
After settling matters in the East, in 62 BCE he returned to Rome, where he triumphed. However, the Senate, fearing the increasing authority of Pompey, refused to approve his orders in the East and give land to veterans.
Thus in 60 BCE Pompey entered into an agreement with Crassus and Caesar, creating an informal First Triumvirate, providing all three with real power over the state, which allowed Pompey to force his demands. In 56 BCE the triumvirs renewed the agreement in Lucca, and Pompey received the governorship in Hispania.
In 55 BCE he was a consul along with Crassus for the second time. In the same year, in order to win the endorsement among the people, he built the first stone theater, so-called Pompey’s theater. After the death of Crassus in the battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE, there was a break of the triumvirate and a conflict occurred between Pompey and Caesar. In 52 BCE in the face of a wave of riots caused by the struggle of Milo and Clodius, he was elected a consul without a colleague in the office (sine collegae). He later led the election for the last five months as consul of his father-in-law, Metellus Scipio.
According to some sources, Caesar was supposed to mourn his rival and pay his corpses great respect, and put a kiss on his forehead.
Presumably on 10 January 49 BCE, 53-year-old Caesar, crossing the border of Italy on the River Rubicon, began a conflict with Pompey, which turned into an open war. The Senate recognized Pompey as the defender of Rome and granted him a lot of powers. Not having enough strength to oppose the legions of Caesar in Italy, Pompey got to Greece, where he managed to gather a large army.
Detailed description of the Civil War
The conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey was to decide about Rome’s future.
After his victory at Dyrrachium, which he did not use, a month later, on 9 August 48 BCE, there was a battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey’s army suffered a devastating defeat in spite of the military advantage. The defeated commander escaped to Egypt.
Evacuation to Egypt
On 28 September 48 BCE Pompey’s messengers came to Egypt. They had an audience with a ten-year-old Ptolemy XIII, for whom his guardians and advisers: Potheinus, Achillas and Theodotusreally ruled. They obtained assurance that their leader would be accepted in Egypt with appropriate honors. Pompey did not have to be afraid of anything, because it had been him who in the year 55 BCE had restored the throne of the pharaohs, the father of the present ruler – Ptolemy XII Auletes. In Egypt still stationed Roman legions consisting largely of Pompey’s former legionnaires, still from the times of the fighting with Mithridates VI. Pompey was the guardian of the royal family appointed by the Senate.
The situation, however, was not so simple. At that time in Egypt there was a civil war between supporters of the minor Ptolemy XIII, and supporters of his sister, then twenty-one-year old Cleopatra. The siblings were to rule together, according to the wishes of their father, who died in 51 BCE. However, a fight quickly took place between them. Cleopatra was banished from Egypt in April of 48 BCE, but quickly gathered an army in Syria and struck Egypt. Both armies met in the area of the Pelusium fortress, in the east of the country. However, the battle did not take place. Ptolemy’s supporters realized that supporting defeated Pompey in such conditions would result in Caesar’s immediate support for Cleopatra. Finally, the discussion about how to deal with Pompey, was interrupted by Theodotus saying “the dead do not bite”.
Meanwhile, Pompey managed to leave Thessaly and get to the island of Lesbos. He took his wife Cornelia and son Sextus from there. He then sailed along the shores of Asia Minor to Cyprus. Along the way, he collected his own soldiers who had survived and some of the slaves, of which he also created troops (numbering c. 2 000 people). They sailed in the direction of Alexandria, from where they were directed to Pelusium. Then, Achillas went to Pompey’s ship on the small boat. Two former Pompey’s officers were with him – Septimius and Savius. Many of the Pompeians present on the ship advised Pompey to sail away, as the scorn he was experiencing with such modest welcome spoke for itself. Septimius, however, from the boat, greeted Pompey like an emperor, and then Achillas began to speak in Greek. He explained that the larger ships would not het through shoal the, but it was noticed that Egyptian soldiers were embarking nearby ships. Nevertheless, Pompey decided to get on the boat. Along with him, there were also two officers, the freedman Pompey named Philip and one slave. Pompey turned to his wife and son and said in Greek: “Whoever enters the tyrant’s house is his slave, even if he has come free.” There was silence on the boat, only Pompey tried to start a conversation with Septimius, but he did not reply, only nodded. As they approached the shore, Pompey rose and leaned over to Philip’s hand as he suddenly felt a strong stabbing punch. It was Septimius who had stabbed him with his sword, others had their swords drawn, Pompey fell bloodstained, and tried to cover his face with his toga.
Septimius carried the severed head of his former commander to the king Ptolemy. Then on 28 September, there was a thirteenth anniversary of Pompey’s second triumph in Rome. Pompey’s body laid on the beach until dusk, then his freedman Philip, washed it and wrapped it in his own tunic. Then he arranged a small funeral pile and set fire to his master’s body. Then came an old man who had once served under the orders of Pompey in Spain. Only the two of them stood by the burning body of Pompey the Great, the Roman conqueror, the first Roman who had entered the Temple in Jerusalem, he was supposed to have slipped on its steps. He destroyed the kingdom of the Seleucids, existing for almost three centuries. He commanded the last and victorious battle against Spartacus, ending the uprising in Italy. Finally, he tamed pirates in the Mediterranean, who were its plague as they had been kidnapping free inhabitants of coastal lands and selling them into captivity, especially young women and children. Pompey put an end to that, and eventually himself ended up like a villain
Pompey died on 28 September 48 BCE cut with the swords of his officers. People on the ship, seeing what was happening, quickly sailed away.
On 2 October Caesar arrived in Alexandria. Theodotus went for a meeting with him, carrying Pompey’s head and his ring. Caesar, seeing the head of the rival, exploded with anger, ordered Theodotus to leave his ship immediately, and he cried himself and gave honor to the deceased, then ordering to build a proper monument. Pompey’s fortune after his death was estimated for seven hundred million sesterces.
Marriage and offspring
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Tuberculosis has been called the social disease. It has lived with mankind for thousands of years, and our view of the disease has changed with time and social context. On World Tuberculosis Day (24 March), here’s an example of how attitudes towards a key symptom of the disease – coughing up sputum – changed during the course of the 19th century.
In the 18th century spitting in public was a common and socially acceptable habit in Europe. Far from being frowned upon, spitting was even encouraged in etiquette manuals. Often associated with chewing tobacco, spittoons were used as containers for spit and could be found both inside and outside of public places, such as public houses.
By the 19th century manners had changed, and there was “a certain class-based repugnance” at the habit of public spitting. The change in attitude towards spitting was reinforced by a greater awareness of the transmission of contagious diseases. But a sense of revulsion at the habit as much as medical concern about spitting informed public health campaigns of day.
The emblematic image of the tuberculosis sufferer is the Romantic consumptive coughing into a handkerchief. It was known that pulmonary tuberculosis (also known as phthisis and consumption) significantly increased expectoration. In the later stages sufferers often spat blood.
Tuberculosis was increasingly acknowledged to be a contagious disease, confirmed in 1882 when Koch discovered the tubercle bacillus. Spitting was thought to spread tuberculosis via dried sputum particles dispersed through dry sweeping of floors, or by spitting onto handkerchiefs and letting them dry on furnishings and bed linen.
Public health became vital a tool in the control of tuberculosis and spitting in public became the subject of public health education in many countries.
In France, in 1898, the Academy of Medicine declared a War on Tuberculosis. The thrust of their attack was contagious spittle. In his report to the committee, the physician Joseph Grancher declared: “We know…that the tuberculeux who spits or excretes his bacilli is dangerous and we must be protected from him”.
The working class were most commonly blamed for careless public spitting. The negligent worker who spat in public was a threat to his family and to society at large because he might cough up spit and infect innocent bystanders.
The French strategy was to discourage spitting and encourage the use of spitoons so that spittle could be disinfected. In 1900 population density (in overcrowded housing) and alcoholism were added to the social causes of tuberculosis along with spitting.
A similar approach could be found in Britain. In his 1903 report, Sidney Davies, the Medical Officer of Health for Woolwich reported on the problem of public houses as a source of tuberculosis infection. Because public bars were frequented by working men “in all stages of consumption and that spitting on the floor is a general practice in these places, it is to be expected that they should be a fruitful source of infection.”
He carried out tests on samples of bar sweepings from six public houses and found tubercle bacillus in two of them. Here is his full account in the MOH report:
Some felt that the focus on spitting was a displaced concern about wider social issues, nevertheless in many countries including France, Russia and Britain, vigorous campaigns against spitting were a universal feature of public health measures against tuberculosis.
Author: Lalita Kaplish is a web editor at the Wellcome Library
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Tuberculosis has been called the social disease. It has lived with mankind for thousands of years, and our view of the disease has changed with time and social context. On World Tuberculosis Day (24 March), here’s an example of how attitudes towards a key symptom of the disease – coughing up sputum – changed during the course of the 19th century.
In the 18th century spitting in public was a common and socially acceptable habit in Europe. Far from being frowned upon, spitting was even encouraged in etiquette manuals. Often associated with chewing tobacco, spittoons were used as containers for spit and could be found both inside and outside of public places, such as public houses.
By the 19th century manners had changed, and there was “a certain class-based repugnance” at the habit of public spitting. The change in attitude towards spitting was reinforced by a greater awareness of the transmission of contagious diseases. But a sense of revulsion at the habit as much as medical concern about spitting informed public health campaigns of day.
The emblematic image of the tuberculosis sufferer is the Romantic consumptive coughing into a handkerchief. It was known that pulmonary tuberculosis (also known as phthisis and consumption) significantly increased expectoration. In the later stages sufferers often spat blood.
Tuberculosis was increasingly acknowledged to be a contagious disease, confirmed in 1882 when Koch discovered the tubercle bacillus. Spitting was thought to spread tuberculosis via dried sputum particles dispersed through dry sweeping of floors, or by spitting onto handkerchiefs and letting them dry on furnishings and bed linen.
Public health became vital a tool in the control of tuberculosis and spitting in public became the subject of public health education in many countries.
In France, in 1898, the Academy of Medicine declared a War on Tuberculosis. The thrust of their attack was contagious spittle. In his report to the committee, the physician Joseph Grancher declared: “We know…that the tuberculeux who spits or excretes his bacilli is dangerous and we must be protected from him”.
The working class were most commonly blamed for careless public spitting. The negligent worker who spat in public was a threat to his family and to society at large because he might cough up spit and infect innocent bystanders.
The French strategy was to discourage spitting and encourage the use of spitoons so that spittle could be disinfected. In 1900 population density (in overcrowded housing) and alcoholism were added to the social causes of tuberculosis along with spitting.
A similar approach could be found in Britain. In his 1903 report, Sidney Davies, the Medical Officer of Health for Woolwich reported on the problem of public houses as a source of tuberculosis infection. Because public bars were frequented by working men “in all stages of consumption and that spitting on the floor is a general practice in these places, it is to be expected that they should be a fruitful source of infection.”
He carried out tests on samples of bar sweepings from six public houses and found tubercle bacillus in two of them. Here is his full account in the MOH report:
Some felt that the focus on spitting was a displaced concern about wider social issues, nevertheless in many countries including France, Russia and Britain, vigorous campaigns against spitting were a universal feature of public health measures against tuberculosis.
Author: Lalita Kaplish is a web editor at the Wellcome Library
| 729
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Infant Protection Act of 1904 was a law developed after the 1903 Royal Commission into the Decline of the Birth Rate. That inquiry had been led by Dr Charles Mackellar and other medical specialists who were interested in reducing the high rate of infant mortality in Sydney and preventing unlicensed child care and fostering, which was popularly called 'baby-farming'. The Commissioners had recognised that unmarried mothers turned to unlicensed carers as they had to work, yet babies who were not breastfed were vulnerable to gastroenteritis and 'summer fever', which was essentially poisoning from milk that was off or adulterated.
Mackellar was passionate about reducing infant mortality in Sydney and had chaired important inquiries into the city's low birth rate, high rate of infant deaths and the risk of 'baby-farming', or unlicensed fostering of tiny babies. Mackellar knew the babies of single mothers were vulnerable, as single mothers usually had to work, so placed their young babies with unlicensed foster mothers. Proper formulas did not exist, and milk supplies were unreliable and unsafe so any baby that was not being breastfed by its mother was at risk of gastroenteritis and other illnesses. In addition, babies were often given unsuitable foods and medicines.
In 1904 Mackellar became the head of the State Children's Relief Board so introduced this law to make sure the care of babies was at a reasonable standard. During his tenure (1904-1914) he opened several State Children's Relief Board homes that were designed to keep unmarried mothers and babies together during the critical first months. Mackellar was adamant that breastfeeding was best for the health of the child, and said the strong bonds created between mother and baby during this period would help the mother, as well as motivate her to do the best for her baby's welfare during its infancy. Mackellar hoped to help mothers keep their babies after weaning, but if that could not happen, the babies had at least reached the age where they would survive being boarded out.
This Act also contained important provisions to help single mothers claim support from their child's father.
We do not currently have any resources linked to this entry, but resources may exist. If you know of any related resources, please contact us.
The Find & Connect Support Service can help people who lived in orphanages and children's institutions look for their records.
08 January 2019
Cite this: https://www.findandconnect.gov.au/guide/nsw/NE00008
First published by the Find & Connect Web Resource Project for the Commonwealth of Australia, 2011
Except where otherwise noted, content on this site is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License
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] | 2
|
The Infant Protection Act of 1904 was a law developed after the 1903 Royal Commission into the Decline of the Birth Rate. That inquiry had been led by Dr Charles Mackellar and other medical specialists who were interested in reducing the high rate of infant mortality in Sydney and preventing unlicensed child care and fostering, which was popularly called 'baby-farming'. The Commissioners had recognised that unmarried mothers turned to unlicensed carers as they had to work, yet babies who were not breastfed were vulnerable to gastroenteritis and 'summer fever', which was essentially poisoning from milk that was off or adulterated.
Mackellar was passionate about reducing infant mortality in Sydney and had chaired important inquiries into the city's low birth rate, high rate of infant deaths and the risk of 'baby-farming', or unlicensed fostering of tiny babies. Mackellar knew the babies of single mothers were vulnerable, as single mothers usually had to work, so placed their young babies with unlicensed foster mothers. Proper formulas did not exist, and milk supplies were unreliable and unsafe so any baby that was not being breastfed by its mother was at risk of gastroenteritis and other illnesses. In addition, babies were often given unsuitable foods and medicines.
In 1904 Mackellar became the head of the State Children's Relief Board so introduced this law to make sure the care of babies was at a reasonable standard. During his tenure (1904-1914) he opened several State Children's Relief Board homes that were designed to keep unmarried mothers and babies together during the critical first months. Mackellar was adamant that breastfeeding was best for the health of the child, and said the strong bonds created between mother and baby during this period would help the mother, as well as motivate her to do the best for her baby's welfare during its infancy. Mackellar hoped to help mothers keep their babies after weaning, but if that could not happen, the babies had at least reached the age where they would survive being boarded out.
This Act also contained important provisions to help single mothers claim support from their child's father.
We do not currently have any resources linked to this entry, but resources may exist. If you know of any related resources, please contact us.
The Find & Connect Support Service can help people who lived in orphanages and children's institutions look for their records.
08 January 2019
Cite this: https://www.findandconnect.gov.au/guide/nsw/NE00008
First published by the Find & Connect Web Resource Project for the Commonwealth of Australia, 2011
Except where otherwise noted, content on this site is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License
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ENGLISH
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The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai and Palestine: The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders
At different times during the slow progression across the Desert, the horses were often short of rations, and almost continually had bad water to drink—often not enough even of that. These were added cares to the majority of the men, who had the welfare of their faithful chargers so much at heart. This individual care for their horses, indeed, was one of the outstanding characteristics of the New Zealand horsemen, and largely made possible the long marches and consistently good patrol work done by them. Men would go to all sorts of trouble to gain a little extra feed or water for their horses, and in bivouac, or on the march, do everything to save them, and preserve them in the best possible condition.
At one time the horses were badly affected by the bad water, and sand colic, and as the strength of the Brigade was measured by the men it could mount, for some time the units were very much below strength, owing to the wholesale evacuation of sick and collapsed horses. Many of the remounts sent up to replace the worn out chargers were not New Zealand horses, but came, originally, it was page 45thought, from the Argentine. These animals, although apparently in the pink of condition when they arrived, were soft, of poor heart, and could not stand up to the hardships as the original New Zealand-bred horses had done, with the result that they were evacuated from the active list as fast as they appeared.
At this point it will be apposite to state that on this front, where in the later days of the Campaign in Palestine the New Zealanders took part in the largest cavalry movements seen in the world's history, the New Zealand horses throughout stood up to their work brilliantly, and were considered, by many qualified to express an opinion, to be, perhaps, the most serviceable troop-horses in the world for active service.
The mounts possessed by the Australians were, generally speaking, better looking horses, and were held by some to be the best horses, but veterinary returns will show that they did not stand up to hardship as did the New Zealand-bred stock.
As regards the English Yeomanry, the New Zealand horses were superior in both appearance and stamina.
The load carried by a Mounted Rifleman's horse in the field is considerable, and may be described here in some detail, to give the reader some idea of what is required of these horses in endurance. The description given is of the minimum load carried when setting out page 46on a "stunt" (as all individual operations against the enemy came to be called), consisting of bare essentials only.
The Mounted Rifleman wore, on his person, a leather bandolier containing 150 rounds of ammunition, bayonet, service rifle, and haversack, the latter usually stuffed with tins of the inevitable "bully" beef and army biscuits. The saddlery on his mount consisted of head-stall and bridle, headrope, picketing rope, saddle, and blanket. In addition to this the horse carried, slung round his neck, a leather sand muzzle, which was slipped on in place of the nosebag when he had finished his meagre feed, to prevent him eating sand and dirt; this being a bad habit quickly indulged in by many horses when hungry.
In this sand-muzzle the trooper often carried his mess-tin, or "billy" for cooking or making tea, and his dandy brush for grooming. The next item was the horse bandolier, slung round the horse's neck and containing an additional 90 rounds of ammunition. Strapped on the front of the saddle were two leather wallets, probably containing towel, soap, spare shirt, socks, and what rations the rider could not get into his haversack; strapped on top of these again would be the greatcoat and one blanket.
The men usually set out with forty-eight hours' rations and an iron ration, while the horse ration for three days (27 lbs.) would be carried. This horsefeed would be distributed page 47between two nosebags, tied to the side of the saddle, and a sandbag, round which might be rolled a ground or bivouac sheet, strapped across the rear of the saddle. Also slung to the side of the saddle would be the canvas water-bucket which served the soldier for the watering of his horse and his own ablutions, and his water-bottle. When the Desert was behind them, and our troops were in Palestine, where a sufficiency of water was usually obtainable, two or three water-bottles would be carried by each man.
Besides the above, some men carried a spare haversack made into a saddlebag, and strapped to the side of the saddle, while at least one man in each section of four had to carry as well a sack for anchoring the picket line of his section in the sand. Another addition to the load which was often seen was a small bundle of firewood strapped to the rear of the saddle, this being often unobtainable on the march, and a necessity for the production of a New Zealander's stand-by, a "boil-up" of tea. The tunic, which was needed at night, was usually carried strapped to the top of the load, the rider wearing an armless singlet or shirt which protected his body from sunburn.
Considerable skill was required in adjusting the load described above, as an unequal distribution of weight, loose ends of straps getting underneath the saddle, or a wrinkled saddle-blanket, would quickly give a horse a sore back page 48on the long marches the New Zealand horsemen were constantly called on to do.
From the foregoing it will easily be understood that a man of medium weight would ride, with all his gear up, at well over twenty stone, a huge weight for a light horse to carry for long distances on good going, let alone through the heavy sand of the Desert.
A pathetic sight was often to be seen during brief halts on a long march, for the faithful, tired animals would often lie down, with all their gear on, beside their wearied masters, to snatch what brief repose they could.page break page break
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] | 1
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The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai and Palestine: The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders
At different times during the slow progression across the Desert, the horses were often short of rations, and almost continually had bad water to drink—often not enough even of that. These were added cares to the majority of the men, who had the welfare of their faithful chargers so much at heart. This individual care for their horses, indeed, was one of the outstanding characteristics of the New Zealand horsemen, and largely made possible the long marches and consistently good patrol work done by them. Men would go to all sorts of trouble to gain a little extra feed or water for their horses, and in bivouac, or on the march, do everything to save them, and preserve them in the best possible condition.
At one time the horses were badly affected by the bad water, and sand colic, and as the strength of the Brigade was measured by the men it could mount, for some time the units were very much below strength, owing to the wholesale evacuation of sick and collapsed horses. Many of the remounts sent up to replace the worn out chargers were not New Zealand horses, but came, originally, it was page 45thought, from the Argentine. These animals, although apparently in the pink of condition when they arrived, were soft, of poor heart, and could not stand up to the hardships as the original New Zealand-bred horses had done, with the result that they were evacuated from the active list as fast as they appeared.
At this point it will be apposite to state that on this front, where in the later days of the Campaign in Palestine the New Zealanders took part in the largest cavalry movements seen in the world's history, the New Zealand horses throughout stood up to their work brilliantly, and were considered, by many qualified to express an opinion, to be, perhaps, the most serviceable troop-horses in the world for active service.
The mounts possessed by the Australians were, generally speaking, better looking horses, and were held by some to be the best horses, but veterinary returns will show that they did not stand up to hardship as did the New Zealand-bred stock.
As regards the English Yeomanry, the New Zealand horses were superior in both appearance and stamina.
The load carried by a Mounted Rifleman's horse in the field is considerable, and may be described here in some detail, to give the reader some idea of what is required of these horses in endurance. The description given is of the minimum load carried when setting out page 46on a "stunt" (as all individual operations against the enemy came to be called), consisting of bare essentials only.
The Mounted Rifleman wore, on his person, a leather bandolier containing 150 rounds of ammunition, bayonet, service rifle, and haversack, the latter usually stuffed with tins of the inevitable "bully" beef and army biscuits. The saddlery on his mount consisted of head-stall and bridle, headrope, picketing rope, saddle, and blanket. In addition to this the horse carried, slung round his neck, a leather sand muzzle, which was slipped on in place of the nosebag when he had finished his meagre feed, to prevent him eating sand and dirt; this being a bad habit quickly indulged in by many horses when hungry.
In this sand-muzzle the trooper often carried his mess-tin, or "billy" for cooking or making tea, and his dandy brush for grooming. The next item was the horse bandolier, slung round the horse's neck and containing an additional 90 rounds of ammunition. Strapped on the front of the saddle were two leather wallets, probably containing towel, soap, spare shirt, socks, and what rations the rider could not get into his haversack; strapped on top of these again would be the greatcoat and one blanket.
The men usually set out with forty-eight hours' rations and an iron ration, while the horse ration for three days (27 lbs.) would be carried. This horsefeed would be distributed page 47between two nosebags, tied to the side of the saddle, and a sandbag, round which might be rolled a ground or bivouac sheet, strapped across the rear of the saddle. Also slung to the side of the saddle would be the canvas water-bucket which served the soldier for the watering of his horse and his own ablutions, and his water-bottle. When the Desert was behind them, and our troops were in Palestine, where a sufficiency of water was usually obtainable, two or three water-bottles would be carried by each man.
Besides the above, some men carried a spare haversack made into a saddlebag, and strapped to the side of the saddle, while at least one man in each section of four had to carry as well a sack for anchoring the picket line of his section in the sand. Another addition to the load which was often seen was a small bundle of firewood strapped to the rear of the saddle, this being often unobtainable on the march, and a necessity for the production of a New Zealander's stand-by, a "boil-up" of tea. The tunic, which was needed at night, was usually carried strapped to the top of the load, the rider wearing an armless singlet or shirt which protected his body from sunburn.
Considerable skill was required in adjusting the load described above, as an unequal distribution of weight, loose ends of straps getting underneath the saddle, or a wrinkled saddle-blanket, would quickly give a horse a sore back page 48on the long marches the New Zealand horsemen were constantly called on to do.
From the foregoing it will easily be understood that a man of medium weight would ride, with all his gear up, at well over twenty stone, a huge weight for a light horse to carry for long distances on good going, let alone through the heavy sand of the Desert.
A pathetic sight was often to be seen during brief halts on a long march, for the faithful, tired animals would often lie down, with all their gear on, beside their wearied masters, to snatch what brief repose they could.page break page break
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Action: Use signage to warn motorists
Key messagesRead our guidance on Key messages before continuing
- One study in the UK found that despite warning signs and human assistance, over 500 toads were killed on some roads.
The number of amphibians killed by vehicles can be high, particularly where their annual migration routes between overwintering and breeding sites cross roads. Signs to warn motorists of amphibian activity can be installed around the densest migration routes.
Supporting evidence from individual studies
A study in 1995 of 76 toad patrol projects, 44 with toad warning road signs in the UK (Froglife 1996) found that despite signs and human assistance in the spring some toads were still killed on the roads. Overall, 65% of patrols reported that up to 100 toads were killed on the road, 28% reported 100–500 were killed and 7% over 500 toads. Only 20% of populations were believed to be stable or increasing. A questionnaire survey of most of the known and established toad patrols was undertaken. Seventy-six replies were obtained.
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https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/841
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Action: Use signage to warn motorists
Key messagesRead our guidance on Key messages before continuing
- One study in the UK found that despite warning signs and human assistance, over 500 toads were killed on some roads.
The number of amphibians killed by vehicles can be high, particularly where their annual migration routes between overwintering and breeding sites cross roads. Signs to warn motorists of amphibian activity can be installed around the densest migration routes.
Supporting evidence from individual studies
A study in 1995 of 76 toad patrol projects, 44 with toad warning road signs in the UK (Froglife 1996) found that despite signs and human assistance in the spring some toads were still killed on the roads. Overall, 65% of patrols reported that up to 100 toads were killed on the road, 28% reported 100–500 were killed and 7% over 500 toads. Only 20% of populations were believed to be stable or increasing. A questionnaire survey of most of the known and established toad patrols was undertaken. Seventy-six replies were obtained.
| 249
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ENGLISH
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The Abbey of Bury St Edmunds was once among the richest Benedictine monasteries in England, until the Dissolution of the monasteries in 1539. It is in the town that grew up around it, Bury St Edmunds in the county of Suffolk, England. It was a centre of pilgrimage as the burial place of the Anglo-Saxon martyr-king Saint Edmund, killed by the Great Heathen Army of Danes in 869. The ruins of the abbey church and most other buildings are merely rubble cores, but two very large medieval gatehouses survive, as well as two secondary medieval churches built within the abbey complex.
When, in the early 10th century, the relics of the martyred king, St Edmund, were translated from Hoxne to Beodricsworth, afterwards known as St Edmundsbury, the site had already been in religious use for nearly three centuries. To the small household of Benedictine monks who guarded the shrine the surrounding lands were granted in 1020, during the reign of Canute. Monks were introduced from St Benet's Abbey under the auspices of the Bishop of Elmham and Dunwich. Two of them became Bury's first two abbots, Ufi, prior of Holme, (d. 1044), who was consecrated abbot by the Bishop of London, and Leofstan (1044-65). After Leofstan's death, the king appointed his physician Baldwin to the abbacy (1065-97). Baldwin rebuilt the church and reinterred St Edmund's body there with great ceremony in 1095. The cult made the richly endowed abbey a popular destination for pilgrimages.
The abbey church of St Edmund was built in the 11th and 12th centuries on a cruciform plan, with its head (or apse) pointed east. The shrine of St Edmund stood behind the high altar. The abbey was much enlarged and rebuilt during the 12th century. At some 505 feet long, and spanning 246 ft across its westerly transept, Bury St Edmunds abbey church was one of the largest in the country. It is now ruined, with only some rubble cores remaining, but two other separate churches which were built within the abbey precinct survive, having always functioned as parish churches for the town. St James's Church, now St Edmundsbury Cathedral, was finished around 1135. St Mary's Church was first built around 1125, and then rebuilt in the Perpendicular style between 1425 and 1435.
Abbey Gate, opening onto the Great Courtyard, was the secular entrance which was used by the Abbey's servants.
The Cloisters Cross, also referred to as the "Bury St Edmunds Cross", is an unusually complex 12th-century Romanesque altar cross, carved from walrus ivory. it is now int the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The sculptor is not known. Thomas Hoving, who managed the acquisition of the cross while he was Associate Curator at The Cloisters, concluded that it was carved by Master Hugo at the Abbey. There is no certain evidence to suggest that the cross was even made in England, however, although this is accepted by most scholars, and other places of origin such as Germany have been proposed.
In 1327, it was destroyed during the Great Riot by the local people, who were angry at the power of the monastery, and it had to be rebuilt. Norman Gate dates from 1120 to 1148 and was designed to be the gateway for the Abbey Church and it is still the belfry for the Church of St James, the present cathedral of Bury St Edmunds. This four-storey gate-hall is virtually unchanged and is entered through a single archway. Abbey Gate is an impressive 14th century stone gatehouse, designed to be the gateway for the Great Courtyard. One of the best surviving examples of its type, this two-storey gate-hall is entered through a single archway which retains its portcullis. The Crankles was the name of the fishpond near the river Lark. The vineyard was first laid out in the 13th century. There were three breweries in the Abbey as each monk was entitled to eight pints a day.
The Abbey's charters granted extensive lands and rights in Suffolk. By 1327, the Abbey owned all of West Suffolk. The Abbey held the gates of Bury St Edmunds; they held wardships of all orphans, whose income went to the Abbot until the orphan reached maturity; they pressed their rights of corvée. In the late 12th century, the Abbot Adam Samson forced the Dean Herbert to destroy the new windmill he had built without permission. Adam said: "By the face of God! I will never eat bread until that building is destroyed!"
The town of Bury St Edmunds was designed by the monks in a grid pattern. The monks charged tariffs on every economic activity, including the collecting of horse droppings in the streets. The Abbey even ran the Royal Mint. During the 13th century general prosperity blunted the resistance of burghers and peasants; in the 14th century, however, the monks encountered hostility from the local populace. Throughout 1327, the monastery suffered extensively, as several monks lost their lives in riots, and many buildings were destroyed. The townspeople attacked in January, forcing a charter of liberties on them. When the monks reneged on this they attacked again in February and May. The hated charters and debtors' accounts were seized and triumphantly torn to shreds.
A reprieve came on 29 September when Queen Isabella arrived at the Abbey with an army from Hainaut. She had returned from the continent with the intention of deposing her husband, King Edward II. She stayed at the Abbey a number of days with her son the future Edward III.
On 18 October 1327, a group of monks entered the local parish church. They threw off their habits, revealing they were armoured underneath, and took several hostages. The people called for the hostages' release: but monks threw objects at them, killing some. In response, the citizens swore to fight the abbey to the death. They included a parson and 28 chaplains. They burnt the gates and captured the abbey.
In 1345, a special commission found that the monks did not wear habits or live in the monastery. Already faced with considerable financial strain, the abbey went further into decline during the first half of the 15th century. In 1431 the west tower of the abbey church collapsed. Two years later Henry VI moved into residence at the abbey for Christmas, and was still enjoying monastic hospitality four months later. More trouble arose in 1446 when the Duke of Gloucester died in suspicious circumstances after his arrest, and in 1465 the entire church was burnt out by an accidental fire. Largely rebuilt by 1506, the abbey of Bury St Edmunds settled into a quieter existence until dissolution in 1539. Subsequently stripped of all valuable building materials and artefacts, the abbey ruins were left as a convenient quarry for local builders. A collection of wolf skulls were discovered at the site in 1848.
The ruins are owned by English Heritage and managed by St Edmundsbury Borough Council.
The Abbey Gardens are owned by St Edmundsbury Borough Council, and managed by the council in conjunction with English Heritage. The abbey ruins lie within the park. A friends' group supports the maintenance of and improvements to the gardens.
The Abbey Gardens surrounding the ruins had an "Internet bench" installed in 2001, which people could use to connect laptops to the Internet. It was the first bench of its kind. There is a sensory garden for the visually impaired.
In the late 19th century, a manuscript discovered in France revealed the burial location of eighteen of the Abbey's abbots. The antiquary and author Montague R. James, an authority on the Abbey's history, oversaw an excavation of the chapter house, and on New Year's Day 1903 the coffins and remains of five of the abbots were shown to the public.
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The Abbey of Bury St Edmunds was once among the richest Benedictine monasteries in England, until the Dissolution of the monasteries in 1539. It is in the town that grew up around it, Bury St Edmunds in the county of Suffolk, England. It was a centre of pilgrimage as the burial place of the Anglo-Saxon martyr-king Saint Edmund, killed by the Great Heathen Army of Danes in 869. The ruins of the abbey church and most other buildings are merely rubble cores, but two very large medieval gatehouses survive, as well as two secondary medieval churches built within the abbey complex.
When, in the early 10th century, the relics of the martyred king, St Edmund, were translated from Hoxne to Beodricsworth, afterwards known as St Edmundsbury, the site had already been in religious use for nearly three centuries. To the small household of Benedictine monks who guarded the shrine the surrounding lands were granted in 1020, during the reign of Canute. Monks were introduced from St Benet's Abbey under the auspices of the Bishop of Elmham and Dunwich. Two of them became Bury's first two abbots, Ufi, prior of Holme, (d. 1044), who was consecrated abbot by the Bishop of London, and Leofstan (1044-65). After Leofstan's death, the king appointed his physician Baldwin to the abbacy (1065-97). Baldwin rebuilt the church and reinterred St Edmund's body there with great ceremony in 1095. The cult made the richly endowed abbey a popular destination for pilgrimages.
The abbey church of St Edmund was built in the 11th and 12th centuries on a cruciform plan, with its head (or apse) pointed east. The shrine of St Edmund stood behind the high altar. The abbey was much enlarged and rebuilt during the 12th century. At some 505 feet long, and spanning 246 ft across its westerly transept, Bury St Edmunds abbey church was one of the largest in the country. It is now ruined, with only some rubble cores remaining, but two other separate churches which were built within the abbey precinct survive, having always functioned as parish churches for the town. St James's Church, now St Edmundsbury Cathedral, was finished around 1135. St Mary's Church was first built around 1125, and then rebuilt in the Perpendicular style between 1425 and 1435.
Abbey Gate, opening onto the Great Courtyard, was the secular entrance which was used by the Abbey's servants.
The Cloisters Cross, also referred to as the "Bury St Edmunds Cross", is an unusually complex 12th-century Romanesque altar cross, carved from walrus ivory. it is now int the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The sculptor is not known. Thomas Hoving, who managed the acquisition of the cross while he was Associate Curator at The Cloisters, concluded that it was carved by Master Hugo at the Abbey. There is no certain evidence to suggest that the cross was even made in England, however, although this is accepted by most scholars, and other places of origin such as Germany have been proposed.
In 1327, it was destroyed during the Great Riot by the local people, who were angry at the power of the monastery, and it had to be rebuilt. Norman Gate dates from 1120 to 1148 and was designed to be the gateway for the Abbey Church and it is still the belfry for the Church of St James, the present cathedral of Bury St Edmunds. This four-storey gate-hall is virtually unchanged and is entered through a single archway. Abbey Gate is an impressive 14th century stone gatehouse, designed to be the gateway for the Great Courtyard. One of the best surviving examples of its type, this two-storey gate-hall is entered through a single archway which retains its portcullis. The Crankles was the name of the fishpond near the river Lark. The vineyard was first laid out in the 13th century. There were three breweries in the Abbey as each monk was entitled to eight pints a day.
The Abbey's charters granted extensive lands and rights in Suffolk. By 1327, the Abbey owned all of West Suffolk. The Abbey held the gates of Bury St Edmunds; they held wardships of all orphans, whose income went to the Abbot until the orphan reached maturity; they pressed their rights of corvée. In the late 12th century, the Abbot Adam Samson forced the Dean Herbert to destroy the new windmill he had built without permission. Adam said: "By the face of God! I will never eat bread until that building is destroyed!"
The town of Bury St Edmunds was designed by the monks in a grid pattern. The monks charged tariffs on every economic activity, including the collecting of horse droppings in the streets. The Abbey even ran the Royal Mint. During the 13th century general prosperity blunted the resistance of burghers and peasants; in the 14th century, however, the monks encountered hostility from the local populace. Throughout 1327, the monastery suffered extensively, as several monks lost their lives in riots, and many buildings were destroyed. The townspeople attacked in January, forcing a charter of liberties on them. When the monks reneged on this they attacked again in February and May. The hated charters and debtors' accounts were seized and triumphantly torn to shreds.
A reprieve came on 29 September when Queen Isabella arrived at the Abbey with an army from Hainaut. She had returned from the continent with the intention of deposing her husband, King Edward II. She stayed at the Abbey a number of days with her son the future Edward III.
On 18 October 1327, a group of monks entered the local parish church. They threw off their habits, revealing they were armoured underneath, and took several hostages. The people called for the hostages' release: but monks threw objects at them, killing some. In response, the citizens swore to fight the abbey to the death. They included a parson and 28 chaplains. They burnt the gates and captured the abbey.
In 1345, a special commission found that the monks did not wear habits or live in the monastery. Already faced with considerable financial strain, the abbey went further into decline during the first half of the 15th century. In 1431 the west tower of the abbey church collapsed. Two years later Henry VI moved into residence at the abbey for Christmas, and was still enjoying monastic hospitality four months later. More trouble arose in 1446 when the Duke of Gloucester died in suspicious circumstances after his arrest, and in 1465 the entire church was burnt out by an accidental fire. Largely rebuilt by 1506, the abbey of Bury St Edmunds settled into a quieter existence until dissolution in 1539. Subsequently stripped of all valuable building materials and artefacts, the abbey ruins were left as a convenient quarry for local builders. A collection of wolf skulls were discovered at the site in 1848.
The ruins are owned by English Heritage and managed by St Edmundsbury Borough Council.
The Abbey Gardens are owned by St Edmundsbury Borough Council, and managed by the council in conjunction with English Heritage. The abbey ruins lie within the park. A friends' group supports the maintenance of and improvements to the gardens.
The Abbey Gardens surrounding the ruins had an "Internet bench" installed in 2001, which people could use to connect laptops to the Internet. It was the first bench of its kind. There is a sensory garden for the visually impaired.
In the late 19th century, a manuscript discovered in France revealed the burial location of eighteen of the Abbey's abbots. The antiquary and author Montague R. James, an authority on the Abbey's history, oversaw an excavation of the chapter house, and on New Year's Day 1903 the coffins and remains of five of the abbots were shown to the public.
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Jewish Perpetrators of the Holocaust Essay
How could ‘ordinary men’ become genocidal killers in the Holocaust? Memories of the Holocaust are littered with acts of such inhumane cruelty and barbarity that they are almost unbelievable, Hermann Patschmann’s memories are no different. “One time the German authorities were short of SS matrons, so they recruited them by force from the factories without even giving them enough time to inform their families. They were taken to the camp where they were divided into groups of 50. One day they were put to the test.
An internee, chosen at random, was brought before them and they were told – all 50 of them – to hit her.
I remember that out of all of them, only three women asked the reason why, and only one woman refused to do it, which caused her to be thrown into prison herself. All the others quickly got into the swing of things as if they had been warming up all their lives to do it. ” How could such acts be committed? Were these people distinctly different to us? If not, how could ‘ordinary men’ and women become genocidal killers in the Holocaust? Two explanations have been put forward to explain how perpetrators were able to complete the acts of the Holocaust.
The first argument has been that the perpetrators of the Holocaust were ideological killers. That is to say that the perpetrators were different to other people from different nations at the time and from people today. They were able to carry out genocidal acts against the Jews because of their intense anti-Semitism. This argument is put forward most famously by Daniel Goldhagen. The second argument posits that the perpetrators of the Holocaust were not fundamentally different to any human being, that is to say any human is capable of carrying out genocidal acts.
This argument does acknowledge the role of anti-Semitism and dehumanisation of the victims in affecting perpetrators actions during the Holocaust. However there were many situational and social psychological forces acting upon the perpetrators of the genocide causing and enabling them to commit the atrocities of the Holocaust. This argument is most famously put forward by Christopher Browning. This essay will investigate the social psychological experiments of Stanley Milgram, Phillip Zimbardo and Solomon Asch, and their bearing on an explanation of perpetrator behaviour.
This essay will then examine the arguments of Goldhagen and Browning. This essay will focus on the perpetrators that carried out the direct physical killing, their beliefs and cognitions, and the situational pressures placed on them. It will be argued that while anti-Semitism did play a role in perpetrator behaviour, however there were a multitude of other situational and social psychological processes going on that impacted on the behaviours of the perpetrators. Anti-Semitism did play a part in the killing of the Jews and in part allowed the perpetrators to justify their actions and continue living everyday life.
However, it will be shown, in the physical moment of the act there were many psychological processes that were present that pushed perpetrators to commit genocide. These psychological processes provided the basis of the justifications that enabled the perpetrators to live with their actions, and continue to function in everyday life. In the 1950s the social psychologist Solomon E Asch, carried out a series of experiments looking at group conformity. These experiments placed a subjects in a group and asked them to compare a series of lines and indicate which lines were the same length.
However in each group eight of the nine participants were in on the experiment and purposely told to select an incorrect answer. The startling findings of this experiment was that approximately 1/3 of the time subjects made an incorrect response, a response that they knew was incorrect, to conform to the group response. These results, however, did vary across participants. Some subjects remained entirely independent of the group, while others conformed only slightly and others conformed very highly.
Still it is shocking to think that many participants in this experiment knew that they were making the incorrect answer yet continued to do so because of pressure to conform to the group. This experiment can be extended to the actions of some perpetrators of the Holocaust. That is to say, some perpetrators knew what they were doing was wrong but the pressure to conform to the group to their battalion was too strong to overcome. The pressure to conform was not just about fitting in but about showing loyalty to Germany as well as showing ones strength as a man.
This is evident in the memory of Patschmann, when three German women asked the reason behind giving the Jewish woman a beating. This questioning indicates a moral concern about the wrongness of the proposed action, however two of the three concerned women gave the beating any way. They conformed to group expectations despite knowing what they were doing was wrong. In the 1960s Stanley Milgram, another social psychologist, was also carrying out a number of experiments that have had great effect on explaining the behaviour of perpetrators during the Holocaust.
In his experiments Milgram instructed a ‘teacher’ (the subject of the experiment) to teach a ‘learner’ (a confederate who was in on the experiment). The ‘learner’, who was in another room to the ‘teacher’ while the experiment was undertaken, was told that they had to learn a list of word pairs and for each incorrect response they would receive an electric shock, the ‘teacher’ was told to teach by increasing the shock level for each incorrect response. The essence of this experiment is the same to the Holocaust, however the scale is different. “How does a man behave when he is told by a legitimate authority to act against a third individual? The fact that around two thirds of participants went all the way to the limit delivering the maximum shock available to them is horrifying. Many subjects did this despite experiencing immense stress and protesting to the experimenter.
How were these subjects able to carry out such acts and how were they able to justify these acts to themselves once they had been carried out? Milgram argues that, “The essence of obedience consists in the fact that a person comes to view himself as the instrument for carrying out another person’s wishes, and he therefore no longer regards himself as responsible for his actions. The subjects of these experiments were also able to justify their actions to themselves by saying that the ‘learner’ was deserving of the experiment, they were the ones that kept on getting the answers wrong. That is to say they devalued the ‘learners’. How far does this experiment go in explaining the obedience of the perpetrators during the Holocaust? Does it offer an explanation of how these perpetrators justified their actions? Does it explain how these perpetrators were able to overcome their own moral objections to the actions that they were undertaking?
This experiment demonstrates that perpetrators of the Holocaust were pressured by authority figures to commit genocidal acts. Even if the order was never actually given, never actually written down, as long as they were made to believe that it was given by an authority figure up the chain of command then there would have been pressure to carry it out. This experiment also demonstrates a means for psychological justification by the perpetrators for their actions.
They were carrying out the wishes of another person against a deserving victim, they were not morally responsible for the decision they were just carrying it out. Once again this behaviour is evident in the actions of the German women in Patschmanns testimony. It is highly unlikely that these women would have behaved in such a brutal way at the request of a non-authority figure. Another social psychological experiment that has great bearing on explaining perpetrator actions during the Holocaust is ‘The Stanford Prison Experiment’ conducted by Phillip Zimbardo.
This experiment demonstrates that ordinary people are capable of doing evil things to other ordinary people. In this experiment ordinary male college students were selected as participants on the criteria that they represented ordinary people, half were then selected at random to be guards and the other half selected to be prisoners. The participants were then placed in a mock prison environment complete with normal cells, an isolation cell, uniforms and identification numbers. Guards were relatively free to enforce discipline as they saw fit, and to ensure the functioning of the prison.
The experiment was interested in recording the types of behaviour that would be adopted by the guards and prisoners, to do this video and audio recording was undertaken. The recordings of this experiment demonstrate the ease at which ordinary humans adopt given roles of a social situation. The nature of the interaction between guards and prisoners on the whole tended to be “negative, hostile, affrontive and dehumanising. ” The guards treatment of the prisoners was sadistic. They tortured the prisoners in a variety of ways. They were stripped naked, put in solitary confinement for hours on end, deprived of meals and blankets or pillows, and forced to do push-ups, jumping jacks, and meaningless activities. ” Prisoners were also deprived of sleep for hours in the form of night counts. The actions of the guards, and the effect that they were having on the psychological well being of the prisoners, became so shocking that the experiment had to be called off after 6 days. This experiment demonstrates that ordinary people are capable of doing extraordinary things if the situation allows and suggests that they do so.
It demonstrates that any ordinary person would not only be easily able to adopt the role of genocidal killer and to go beyond what was expected of them in their official capacity. What role, if any, do these experiments have in explaining how ordinary men and women were able to commit extraordinary acts of cruelty and barbarity in the Holocaust? Daniel Goldhagen argues that they provide little to no explanation. Goldhagen argues that the Holocaust is a result of the evolution of a long history of German anti-Semitism, it is this history of anti-Semitism that is “necessary nd sufficient” to explain the perpetrators actions in the Holocaust. Goldhagen would therefore have us believe that the perpetrators of the genocide were not ‘ordinary men’ or women, an intense anti-Semitism distinguished them from the rest of human society at the time and today, and it was this anti-Semitism that explains their genocidal behaviour during the Holocaust. Goldhagen argues against the situational and social psychological explanations of perpetrator behaviour for a number of key reasons.
He firstly puts forward that perpetrators had a choice to kill, that there is no record of someone having refused to kill being punished. Goldhagen also argues against the notion that perpetrators were just obeying orders. He cites examples of orders being broken frequently, why then he asks were the orders to kill Jews not broken also. Goldhagen, however, does acknowledge the pressure to conform may have influenced the behaviour of some perpetrators. He argues that this influence can only account for some actions of some perpetrators as it requires a majority who were ready and willing to commit geoncidal acts.
Goldhagen’s argument that intense anti-Semitism alone can explain the acts of the Holocaust is flawed for a number of reasons. Firstly it has been argued that Goldhagen was not up to date with psychological research when he wrote his theory on perpetrator behaviour. This is evident in Goldhagen’s failure to examine Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment and the bearing that this has on an explanation of the Holocaust. A second major criticism that has been put to the argument made by Goldhagen is that he pitted the personal motivations of the perpetrators against the situational motivations in explaining perpetrator action.
He argued that it was the personal beliefs, ideas and perceptions rather than the social pressures of the situation that caused the perpetrators to act in the way that they did. Goldhagen failed to see that situations and personal factors interact with each other, people react to situations and in doing so affect the situation itself. In arguing that perpetrators had a choice to kill, and that the perpetrators did not always follow order but they chose to follow the orders of genocide Goldhagen fails to acknowledge the situational pressures present.
As has been demonstrated by the experiments of Milgram and Asch, when an order is issued by an authority figure there is pressure to follow this order this pressure would be greatly increased when the rest of the group carries out this order without question. New German recruits were motivated to carry out duties and do what was asked of them to help Germany, they saw their ability to function and do what was asked of them as a test of strength and honour. They were expected to follow orders. Also Goldhagen argues that many German orders were disobeyed at many different levels without retribution to the disobeyers.
This argument is difficult to believe, because if orders were frequently disobeyed then the German war machine would have disintegrated much earlier than it did. Goldhagens argument does not fully explain how the perpetrators were able to justify their actions to themselves after the genocidal killing had taken place. Justification would have been needed in order for mental functioning to have continued in a healthy way. Goldhagen argues that personal moral obstacles were overcome because the Jews were seen as sub-human, therefore normal ethics and morals did not apply.
While this argument may partially explain perpetrators ability to justify their actions it is difficult to believe that so many Germans possessed such vehement anti-Semitic values. That such a large proportion of the German population was able to totally justify their actions as ‘cleansing’ the Jewish problem. The physical act of killing was a very real act, not an ideological one. Therefore strong psychological justifications were needed in order for perpetrators not to have been significantly mentally affected by the killing process.
It is more likely that these moral values were overcome as the perpetrators no longer saw themselves as responsible for their own actions; they were just carrying out the wishes of an authority. This ability to justify their actions in such a way made it easier for perpetrators to carry out genocidal acts and created an escalation of brutality with each genocidal act. Finally Goldhagen puts forward the idea that Germans intense anti-Semitism was so unique. As was their understanding as to why they needed to kill that Genocide and similar treatment of humans by other humans would not happen again in western society again today.
This argument cannot hold as there have been many gross mistreatment of humans at the hands of other humans since the Holocaust. One only needs to look to Bosnia, Rwanda and Abu Ghraib to see the recent gross mistreatment of human beings by other humans. It is this history of mass killing, torture and genocidal acts throughout the twentieth century that demonstrates that ‘ordinary’ people are very capable of becoming genocidal killers. Christopher Browning presents a much more nuanced explanation of how ‘ordinary men’ and women became genocidal killer, an argument with which the essay strongly agrees.
Browning does acknowledge the role that anti-Semitism played in distancing the perpetrators and the Jews. It was this distancing that was key to facilitating the Holocaust. This distancing came as a result of a social and political process that blamed the Jews for the hardship and problems facing Germany (the problems of hyperinflation, the great depression and the threat of communism), as a consequence of this scapegoating Jews were devalued and excluded from German society. In order to control the problems facing Germany the solution was seen to control the Jews who were propagating these problems.
Browning also points to the social situational pressures that promote certain behaviours in ordinary men and women in his explanation of perpetrator actions during the Holocaust. Browning argues that Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrates that ordinary people are easily able to slip into the role that society gives them. Browning also emphasises the role of peer pressure, and the pressure to conform to the group. This pressure was not just about fitting in and being a part of the group, it became a matter of loyalty to the German cause and a test of manhood to be able to kill.
Browning puts forward that if the men of Reserve Police Battalion 101, who were ordinary middle class Germans and not extreme anti-Semites, could become genocidal killers then “what group of men cannot”. These ordinary men were transformed into genocidal killers through the propagation of anti-Semitic beliefs that devalued the Jews, when it was time for the killing to take place a variety of situational pressures guided and enabled the perpetrators to carry out the genocidal act. This essay started with the memory of Hermann Patschmann, which recounted the brutal treatment of a Jewish prisoner by a group of ordinary German women.
The question was then posed how did these ordinary women commit this act so easily? The argument put forward by Daniel Goldhagen, that an intense anti-Semitism possessed by Germans at this time in history, to explain the genocidal actions of these German women does not hold. Rather as argued by Browning, an argument to which this author strongly agrees, these women were able to do so because of a social and psychological distancing between themselves and the Jewish women, combined with the social psychological pressures of the situation enabled and guided hese women to act in the brutal way that they did. The distancing of perpetrators and victims came out of a long social, psychological and political process. A process that saw the devaluation and dehumanisation of Jews, who were blamed and scapegoated for the problems facing German society, it was therefore seen that to control the Jews was to control the problems facing German society.
It was this distancing of the perpetrator and the victim combined with the situational pressures during the physical act of genocide that caused ordinary men and women to become ordinary killers. They were conforming to group expectations. They were conforming to the roles that society had placed upon them. They were obeying the orders of superior authority figures, which enabled them to overcome their personal moral objections.
What becomes evident when studying the Holocaust, and what is one of its most shocking lessons, a lesson that is “subsequently reinforced by psychological research,” ordinary “people can be induced, seduced, initiated into behaving in evil … ways by immersion in ‘… situations’ that can transform human nature in ways that challenge our sense of stability and consistency of individual, character and morality… Thus any deed that any human being has ever done, however horrible, is possible for any of us to do – under the right or wrong situational pressures. ”
Cite this Jewish Perpetrators of the Holocaust Essay
Jewish Perpetrators of the Holocaust Essay. (2017, Mar 12). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/jewish-essay-perpetrators-of-the-holocaust/
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Jewish Perpetrators of the Holocaust Essay
How could ‘ordinary men’ become genocidal killers in the Holocaust? Memories of the Holocaust are littered with acts of such inhumane cruelty and barbarity that they are almost unbelievable, Hermann Patschmann’s memories are no different. “One time the German authorities were short of SS matrons, so they recruited them by force from the factories without even giving them enough time to inform their families. They were taken to the camp where they were divided into groups of 50. One day they were put to the test.
An internee, chosen at random, was brought before them and they were told – all 50 of them – to hit her.
I remember that out of all of them, only three women asked the reason why, and only one woman refused to do it, which caused her to be thrown into prison herself. All the others quickly got into the swing of things as if they had been warming up all their lives to do it. ” How could such acts be committed? Were these people distinctly different to us? If not, how could ‘ordinary men’ and women become genocidal killers in the Holocaust? Two explanations have been put forward to explain how perpetrators were able to complete the acts of the Holocaust.
The first argument has been that the perpetrators of the Holocaust were ideological killers. That is to say that the perpetrators were different to other people from different nations at the time and from people today. They were able to carry out genocidal acts against the Jews because of their intense anti-Semitism. This argument is put forward most famously by Daniel Goldhagen. The second argument posits that the perpetrators of the Holocaust were not fundamentally different to any human being, that is to say any human is capable of carrying out genocidal acts.
This argument does acknowledge the role of anti-Semitism and dehumanisation of the victims in affecting perpetrators actions during the Holocaust. However there were many situational and social psychological forces acting upon the perpetrators of the genocide causing and enabling them to commit the atrocities of the Holocaust. This argument is most famously put forward by Christopher Browning. This essay will investigate the social psychological experiments of Stanley Milgram, Phillip Zimbardo and Solomon Asch, and their bearing on an explanation of perpetrator behaviour.
This essay will then examine the arguments of Goldhagen and Browning. This essay will focus on the perpetrators that carried out the direct physical killing, their beliefs and cognitions, and the situational pressures placed on them. It will be argued that while anti-Semitism did play a role in perpetrator behaviour, however there were a multitude of other situational and social psychological processes going on that impacted on the behaviours of the perpetrators. Anti-Semitism did play a part in the killing of the Jews and in part allowed the perpetrators to justify their actions and continue living everyday life.
However, it will be shown, in the physical moment of the act there were many psychological processes that were present that pushed perpetrators to commit genocide. These psychological processes provided the basis of the justifications that enabled the perpetrators to live with their actions, and continue to function in everyday life. In the 1950s the social psychologist Solomon E Asch, carried out a series of experiments looking at group conformity. These experiments placed a subjects in a group and asked them to compare a series of lines and indicate which lines were the same length.
However in each group eight of the nine participants were in on the experiment and purposely told to select an incorrect answer. The startling findings of this experiment was that approximately 1/3 of the time subjects made an incorrect response, a response that they knew was incorrect, to conform to the group response. These results, however, did vary across participants. Some subjects remained entirely independent of the group, while others conformed only slightly and others conformed very highly.
Still it is shocking to think that many participants in this experiment knew that they were making the incorrect answer yet continued to do so because of pressure to conform to the group. This experiment can be extended to the actions of some perpetrators of the Holocaust. That is to say, some perpetrators knew what they were doing was wrong but the pressure to conform to the group to their battalion was too strong to overcome. The pressure to conform was not just about fitting in but about showing loyalty to Germany as well as showing ones strength as a man.
This is evident in the memory of Patschmann, when three German women asked the reason behind giving the Jewish woman a beating. This questioning indicates a moral concern about the wrongness of the proposed action, however two of the three concerned women gave the beating any way. They conformed to group expectations despite knowing what they were doing was wrong. In the 1960s Stanley Milgram, another social psychologist, was also carrying out a number of experiments that have had great effect on explaining the behaviour of perpetrators during the Holocaust.
In his experiments Milgram instructed a ‘teacher’ (the subject of the experiment) to teach a ‘learner’ (a confederate who was in on the experiment). The ‘learner’, who was in another room to the ‘teacher’ while the experiment was undertaken, was told that they had to learn a list of word pairs and for each incorrect response they would receive an electric shock, the ‘teacher’ was told to teach by increasing the shock level for each incorrect response. The essence of this experiment is the same to the Holocaust, however the scale is different. “How does a man behave when he is told by a legitimate authority to act against a third individual? The fact that around two thirds of participants went all the way to the limit delivering the maximum shock available to them is horrifying. Many subjects did this despite experiencing immense stress and protesting to the experimenter.
How were these subjects able to carry out such acts and how were they able to justify these acts to themselves once they had been carried out? Milgram argues that, “The essence of obedience consists in the fact that a person comes to view himself as the instrument for carrying out another person’s wishes, and he therefore no longer regards himself as responsible for his actions. The subjects of these experiments were also able to justify their actions to themselves by saying that the ‘learner’ was deserving of the experiment, they were the ones that kept on getting the answers wrong. That is to say they devalued the ‘learners’. How far does this experiment go in explaining the obedience of the perpetrators during the Holocaust? Does it offer an explanation of how these perpetrators justified their actions? Does it explain how these perpetrators were able to overcome their own moral objections to the actions that they were undertaking?
This experiment demonstrates that perpetrators of the Holocaust were pressured by authority figures to commit genocidal acts. Even if the order was never actually given, never actually written down, as long as they were made to believe that it was given by an authority figure up the chain of command then there would have been pressure to carry it out. This experiment also demonstrates a means for psychological justification by the perpetrators for their actions.
They were carrying out the wishes of another person against a deserving victim, they were not morally responsible for the decision they were just carrying it out. Once again this behaviour is evident in the actions of the German women in Patschmanns testimony. It is highly unlikely that these women would have behaved in such a brutal way at the request of a non-authority figure. Another social psychological experiment that has great bearing on explaining perpetrator actions during the Holocaust is ‘The Stanford Prison Experiment’ conducted by Phillip Zimbardo.
This experiment demonstrates that ordinary people are capable of doing evil things to other ordinary people. In this experiment ordinary male college students were selected as participants on the criteria that they represented ordinary people, half were then selected at random to be guards and the other half selected to be prisoners. The participants were then placed in a mock prison environment complete with normal cells, an isolation cell, uniforms and identification numbers. Guards were relatively free to enforce discipline as they saw fit, and to ensure the functioning of the prison.
The experiment was interested in recording the types of behaviour that would be adopted by the guards and prisoners, to do this video and audio recording was undertaken. The recordings of this experiment demonstrate the ease at which ordinary humans adopt given roles of a social situation. The nature of the interaction between guards and prisoners on the whole tended to be “negative, hostile, affrontive and dehumanising. ” The guards treatment of the prisoners was sadistic. They tortured the prisoners in a variety of ways. They were stripped naked, put in solitary confinement for hours on end, deprived of meals and blankets or pillows, and forced to do push-ups, jumping jacks, and meaningless activities. ” Prisoners were also deprived of sleep for hours in the form of night counts. The actions of the guards, and the effect that they were having on the psychological well being of the prisoners, became so shocking that the experiment had to be called off after 6 days. This experiment demonstrates that ordinary people are capable of doing extraordinary things if the situation allows and suggests that they do so.
It demonstrates that any ordinary person would not only be easily able to adopt the role of genocidal killer and to go beyond what was expected of them in their official capacity. What role, if any, do these experiments have in explaining how ordinary men and women were able to commit extraordinary acts of cruelty and barbarity in the Holocaust? Daniel Goldhagen argues that they provide little to no explanation. Goldhagen argues that the Holocaust is a result of the evolution of a long history of German anti-Semitism, it is this history of anti-Semitism that is “necessary nd sufficient” to explain the perpetrators actions in the Holocaust. Goldhagen would therefore have us believe that the perpetrators of the genocide were not ‘ordinary men’ or women, an intense anti-Semitism distinguished them from the rest of human society at the time and today, and it was this anti-Semitism that explains their genocidal behaviour during the Holocaust. Goldhagen argues against the situational and social psychological explanations of perpetrator behaviour for a number of key reasons.
He firstly puts forward that perpetrators had a choice to kill, that there is no record of someone having refused to kill being punished. Goldhagen also argues against the notion that perpetrators were just obeying orders. He cites examples of orders being broken frequently, why then he asks were the orders to kill Jews not broken also. Goldhagen, however, does acknowledge the pressure to conform may have influenced the behaviour of some perpetrators. He argues that this influence can only account for some actions of some perpetrators as it requires a majority who were ready and willing to commit geoncidal acts.
Goldhagen’s argument that intense anti-Semitism alone can explain the acts of the Holocaust is flawed for a number of reasons. Firstly it has been argued that Goldhagen was not up to date with psychological research when he wrote his theory on perpetrator behaviour. This is evident in Goldhagen’s failure to examine Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment and the bearing that this has on an explanation of the Holocaust. A second major criticism that has been put to the argument made by Goldhagen is that he pitted the personal motivations of the perpetrators against the situational motivations in explaining perpetrator action.
He argued that it was the personal beliefs, ideas and perceptions rather than the social pressures of the situation that caused the perpetrators to act in the way that they did. Goldhagen failed to see that situations and personal factors interact with each other, people react to situations and in doing so affect the situation itself. In arguing that perpetrators had a choice to kill, and that the perpetrators did not always follow order but they chose to follow the orders of genocide Goldhagen fails to acknowledge the situational pressures present.
As has been demonstrated by the experiments of Milgram and Asch, when an order is issued by an authority figure there is pressure to follow this order this pressure would be greatly increased when the rest of the group carries out this order without question. New German recruits were motivated to carry out duties and do what was asked of them to help Germany, they saw their ability to function and do what was asked of them as a test of strength and honour. They were expected to follow orders. Also Goldhagen argues that many German orders were disobeyed at many different levels without retribution to the disobeyers.
This argument is difficult to believe, because if orders were frequently disobeyed then the German war machine would have disintegrated much earlier than it did. Goldhagens argument does not fully explain how the perpetrators were able to justify their actions to themselves after the genocidal killing had taken place. Justification would have been needed in order for mental functioning to have continued in a healthy way. Goldhagen argues that personal moral obstacles were overcome because the Jews were seen as sub-human, therefore normal ethics and morals did not apply.
While this argument may partially explain perpetrators ability to justify their actions it is difficult to believe that so many Germans possessed such vehement anti-Semitic values. That such a large proportion of the German population was able to totally justify their actions as ‘cleansing’ the Jewish problem. The physical act of killing was a very real act, not an ideological one. Therefore strong psychological justifications were needed in order for perpetrators not to have been significantly mentally affected by the killing process.
It is more likely that these moral values were overcome as the perpetrators no longer saw themselves as responsible for their own actions; they were just carrying out the wishes of an authority. This ability to justify their actions in such a way made it easier for perpetrators to carry out genocidal acts and created an escalation of brutality with each genocidal act. Finally Goldhagen puts forward the idea that Germans intense anti-Semitism was so unique. As was their understanding as to why they needed to kill that Genocide and similar treatment of humans by other humans would not happen again in western society again today.
This argument cannot hold as there have been many gross mistreatment of humans at the hands of other humans since the Holocaust. One only needs to look to Bosnia, Rwanda and Abu Ghraib to see the recent gross mistreatment of human beings by other humans. It is this history of mass killing, torture and genocidal acts throughout the twentieth century that demonstrates that ‘ordinary’ people are very capable of becoming genocidal killers. Christopher Browning presents a much more nuanced explanation of how ‘ordinary men’ and women became genocidal killer, an argument with which the essay strongly agrees.
Browning does acknowledge the role that anti-Semitism played in distancing the perpetrators and the Jews. It was this distancing that was key to facilitating the Holocaust. This distancing came as a result of a social and political process that blamed the Jews for the hardship and problems facing Germany (the problems of hyperinflation, the great depression and the threat of communism), as a consequence of this scapegoating Jews were devalued and excluded from German society. In order to control the problems facing Germany the solution was seen to control the Jews who were propagating these problems.
Browning also points to the social situational pressures that promote certain behaviours in ordinary men and women in his explanation of perpetrator actions during the Holocaust. Browning argues that Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrates that ordinary people are easily able to slip into the role that society gives them. Browning also emphasises the role of peer pressure, and the pressure to conform to the group. This pressure was not just about fitting in and being a part of the group, it became a matter of loyalty to the German cause and a test of manhood to be able to kill.
Browning puts forward that if the men of Reserve Police Battalion 101, who were ordinary middle class Germans and not extreme anti-Semites, could become genocidal killers then “what group of men cannot”. These ordinary men were transformed into genocidal killers through the propagation of anti-Semitic beliefs that devalued the Jews, when it was time for the killing to take place a variety of situational pressures guided and enabled the perpetrators to carry out the genocidal act. This essay started with the memory of Hermann Patschmann, which recounted the brutal treatment of a Jewish prisoner by a group of ordinary German women.
The question was then posed how did these ordinary women commit this act so easily? The argument put forward by Daniel Goldhagen, that an intense anti-Semitism possessed by Germans at this time in history, to explain the genocidal actions of these German women does not hold. Rather as argued by Browning, an argument to which this author strongly agrees, these women were able to do so because of a social and psychological distancing between themselves and the Jewish women, combined with the social psychological pressures of the situation enabled and guided hese women to act in the brutal way that they did. The distancing of perpetrators and victims came out of a long social, psychological and political process. A process that saw the devaluation and dehumanisation of Jews, who were blamed and scapegoated for the problems facing German society, it was therefore seen that to control the Jews was to control the problems facing German society.
It was this distancing of the perpetrator and the victim combined with the situational pressures during the physical act of genocide that caused ordinary men and women to become ordinary killers. They were conforming to group expectations. They were conforming to the roles that society had placed upon them. They were obeying the orders of superior authority figures, which enabled them to overcome their personal moral objections.
What becomes evident when studying the Holocaust, and what is one of its most shocking lessons, a lesson that is “subsequently reinforced by psychological research,” ordinary “people can be induced, seduced, initiated into behaving in evil … ways by immersion in ‘… situations’ that can transform human nature in ways that challenge our sense of stability and consistency of individual, character and morality… Thus any deed that any human being has ever done, however horrible, is possible for any of us to do – under the right or wrong situational pressures. ”
Cite this Jewish Perpetrators of the Holocaust Essay
Jewish Perpetrators of the Holocaust Essay. (2017, Mar 12). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/jewish-essay-perpetrators-of-the-holocaust/
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How a total solar eclipse created France, Italy and Germany
Europe's division all began with a total solar eclipse
Total solar eclipses have occured throughout history, but you may not know one eclipse played such an integral part in shaping our world geography.
On May 5, 840 a total solar eclipse passed over Europe. Keep in mind that back in the 800s, science was not as advanced as it is today. People didn't have a clue what a solar eclipse was or why the astronomical event happened.
That being said, when the moon passed over the sun that day, creating total darkness, people were terrified. Emperor Louis of Bavaria was so terrified by what he witnessed, in fact, that he died shortly afterward.
The emperor, or Louis the Pious, as he was often called, had three sons: Lothair, Charles and Louis. After his death, they began to fight over Louis' succession to the throne, according to historians.
The family quarrel lasted three years, and finally ended in the Treaty of Verdun. This agreement allowed each of Louis' sons to rule over their own new empires. Lothair would rule over Italy, Louis would oversee Germany and Charles would lead France.
Borders have obviously changed since the original Treaty of Verdun, but the division of the continent into Italy, Germany and France began with one total solar eclipse.
Copyright 2017 by WKMG ClickOrlando - All rights reserved.
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] | 2
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How a total solar eclipse created France, Italy and Germany
Europe's division all began with a total solar eclipse
Total solar eclipses have occured throughout history, but you may not know one eclipse played such an integral part in shaping our world geography.
On May 5, 840 a total solar eclipse passed over Europe. Keep in mind that back in the 800s, science was not as advanced as it is today. People didn't have a clue what a solar eclipse was or why the astronomical event happened.
That being said, when the moon passed over the sun that day, creating total darkness, people were terrified. Emperor Louis of Bavaria was so terrified by what he witnessed, in fact, that he died shortly afterward.
The emperor, or Louis the Pious, as he was often called, had three sons: Lothair, Charles and Louis. After his death, they began to fight over Louis' succession to the throne, according to historians.
The family quarrel lasted three years, and finally ended in the Treaty of Verdun. This agreement allowed each of Louis' sons to rule over their own new empires. Lothair would rule over Italy, Louis would oversee Germany and Charles would lead France.
Borders have obviously changed since the original Treaty of Verdun, but the division of the continent into Italy, Germany and France began with one total solar eclipse.
Copyright 2017 by WKMG ClickOrlando - All rights reserved.
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Nehru responded by describing Patel as a tower of strength who was there to advise and act firmly. Patel also wrote: “Mahatma Gandhi named Pt. Nehru as his heir and successor. Since Gandhiji’s death we have realized our leader’s judgement was correct.”
However, the relations between the prime minister and the home minister in independent India got strained over the choice of the first president. Nehru had wanted the first Indian governor general after independence, C Rajagopalachari, or Rajaji as he was called, to be bestowed the honour.
Rajendra Prasad was no rubberstamp
He had, in fact, persuaded, Rajendra Prasad, who was Patel’s choice, to step aside in favour of Rajaji. Nehru called a meeting of Congress Parliamentary Party (CPP) members to ascertain their views. The majority, dominated by north Indian MPs, expressed their preference for Prasad.
The MPs had not forgiven Rajaji for resigning from the party when the Quit India movement was launched in 1942. The great democrat that he was, Nehru bowed to the party’s wish and paved the way for Rajendra Prasad to be the first President.
But from the start relations between the new President and his Prime Minister were uneasy. Prasad wanted the day fixed for the declaration of the Republic, 26 January, changed because his astrologers had told him that it was not an auspicious day. Nehru did not lose the opportunity to tell his President that India would not be run by astrologers, at least as long as he was around.
Prasad’s insensitivity was surprising because 26 January commemorated a major event in the political history of the country; it was the anniversary of the national celebration which Gandhi had organised after the ‘purna swaraj‘ resolution moved by Nehru exactly two decades before, and the Congress used to celebrate that as Independence day each year.
Nehru wrote to Prasad: “I am afraid I have no faith in astrology and certainly I should not like to fix up national programmes in accordance with the dictates of astrologers. The change of date 26th January for another date would require a great deal of explanation and would not redound to our credit in the world or, for the matter of that, with large numbers of people in India.”
The restoration of the Somnath temple had been approved by the Nehru cabinet soon after Junagadh acceded to India in November 1947. Its reconstruction however was completed only a few months after Sardar Patel had passed away in December 1950. KM Munshi, a cabinet minister, who was the chairman of the official committee of reconstruction of the temple, approached Prasad to inaugurate the temple.
Installation of the jyotirlingam was a part of the inaugural ceremony. Munshi was apprehensive that the President might not accept the invitation in view of the fact that Nehru was not in favor of a secular state associating itself with a religious ceremony. Prasad, however, disregarded the prime minister’s objections and attended the ceremony, which drew scathing criticism from the socialists and communist leaders.
The first president was personally and ideologically opposed to the enactment of the Hindu Code Bill. When this bill came before the provisional parliament, Prasad had objected to it on the basis of locus standi and said that since it was not an elected parliament, such an important measure should not be considered and passed by it.
He wrote to Nehru that he would act solely according to his own judgement, independently of the council of ministers, when giving assent to the bill. Prasad desired to use the power of his office to force the provisional parliament to shelve the measure or, failing that, to veto it even against the advice of his cabinet. It is to Nehru’s credit that he gave a very mature and blunt advice to Prasad not to over-step the limits of his office.
Nehru wrote: In our view, the President had no power or authority to go against the will of Parliament in regard to a Bill that has been well considered by it and passed. The whole conception of constitutional government is against any exercise by the President of such authority… The question of the competence of the present Parliament to enact such a measure was raised in Parliament itself, and after much discussion, the Speaker gave a ruling on the subject… It is hardly open to anyone, even the President, to challenge that decision.”
Fortunately, the President did not pursue the matter and a constitutional dead-lock was avoided. Nehru visited the Soviet Union in June 1955 and the reception he received on arrival in Moscow was unprecedented – something no visiting head of State or Government has received after him. The Russians went all out to fete Nehru.
The feeling in India was one of exultation over the triumphant tour of their national hero. Swept along by the wave, President Prasad decided to bestow the highest honour, Bharat Ratna on the prime minister. Prasad’s explanation was straightforward. He said: ‘Jawahar is literally a Bharat Ratna (Jewel of India). Why not formally make him one?’
In so doing the President disregarded the well-established convention of a formal ceremony: the decoration was awarded at a banquet without a citation.
However the relation between the President and the prime Minister continued to be strained. There was high drama before Prasad got his second term as President. Nehru wanted Vice President Dr S Radhakrishnan elevated but once again the majority view in the CPP favored a second term for Prasad.
Though Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s last term was comparatively a smooth affair he ensured, despite Nehru’s awe-inspiring national and international stature, that he was far from being a rubber-stamp President.
(Praveen Davar is a Member of National Commission for Minorities. The views expressed are personal. He may be contacted at [email protected])
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Nehru responded by describing Patel as a tower of strength who was there to advise and act firmly. Patel also wrote: “Mahatma Gandhi named Pt. Nehru as his heir and successor. Since Gandhiji’s death we have realized our leader’s judgement was correct.”
However, the relations between the prime minister and the home minister in independent India got strained over the choice of the first president. Nehru had wanted the first Indian governor general after independence, C Rajagopalachari, or Rajaji as he was called, to be bestowed the honour.
Rajendra Prasad was no rubberstamp
He had, in fact, persuaded, Rajendra Prasad, who was Patel’s choice, to step aside in favour of Rajaji. Nehru called a meeting of Congress Parliamentary Party (CPP) members to ascertain their views. The majority, dominated by north Indian MPs, expressed their preference for Prasad.
The MPs had not forgiven Rajaji for resigning from the party when the Quit India movement was launched in 1942. The great democrat that he was, Nehru bowed to the party’s wish and paved the way for Rajendra Prasad to be the first President.
But from the start relations between the new President and his Prime Minister were uneasy. Prasad wanted the day fixed for the declaration of the Republic, 26 January, changed because his astrologers had told him that it was not an auspicious day. Nehru did not lose the opportunity to tell his President that India would not be run by astrologers, at least as long as he was around.
Prasad’s insensitivity was surprising because 26 January commemorated a major event in the political history of the country; it was the anniversary of the national celebration which Gandhi had organised after the ‘purna swaraj‘ resolution moved by Nehru exactly two decades before, and the Congress used to celebrate that as Independence day each year.
Nehru wrote to Prasad: “I am afraid I have no faith in astrology and certainly I should not like to fix up national programmes in accordance with the dictates of astrologers. The change of date 26th January for another date would require a great deal of explanation and would not redound to our credit in the world or, for the matter of that, with large numbers of people in India.”
The restoration of the Somnath temple had been approved by the Nehru cabinet soon after Junagadh acceded to India in November 1947. Its reconstruction however was completed only a few months after Sardar Patel had passed away in December 1950. KM Munshi, a cabinet minister, who was the chairman of the official committee of reconstruction of the temple, approached Prasad to inaugurate the temple.
Installation of the jyotirlingam was a part of the inaugural ceremony. Munshi was apprehensive that the President might not accept the invitation in view of the fact that Nehru was not in favor of a secular state associating itself with a religious ceremony. Prasad, however, disregarded the prime minister’s objections and attended the ceremony, which drew scathing criticism from the socialists and communist leaders.
The first president was personally and ideologically opposed to the enactment of the Hindu Code Bill. When this bill came before the provisional parliament, Prasad had objected to it on the basis of locus standi and said that since it was not an elected parliament, such an important measure should not be considered and passed by it.
He wrote to Nehru that he would act solely according to his own judgement, independently of the council of ministers, when giving assent to the bill. Prasad desired to use the power of his office to force the provisional parliament to shelve the measure or, failing that, to veto it even against the advice of his cabinet. It is to Nehru’s credit that he gave a very mature and blunt advice to Prasad not to over-step the limits of his office.
Nehru wrote: In our view, the President had no power or authority to go against the will of Parliament in regard to a Bill that has been well considered by it and passed. The whole conception of constitutional government is against any exercise by the President of such authority… The question of the competence of the present Parliament to enact such a measure was raised in Parliament itself, and after much discussion, the Speaker gave a ruling on the subject… It is hardly open to anyone, even the President, to challenge that decision.”
Fortunately, the President did not pursue the matter and a constitutional dead-lock was avoided. Nehru visited the Soviet Union in June 1955 and the reception he received on arrival in Moscow was unprecedented – something no visiting head of State or Government has received after him. The Russians went all out to fete Nehru.
The feeling in India was one of exultation over the triumphant tour of their national hero. Swept along by the wave, President Prasad decided to bestow the highest honour, Bharat Ratna on the prime minister. Prasad’s explanation was straightforward. He said: ‘Jawahar is literally a Bharat Ratna (Jewel of India). Why not formally make him one?’
In so doing the President disregarded the well-established convention of a formal ceremony: the decoration was awarded at a banquet without a citation.
However the relation between the President and the prime Minister continued to be strained. There was high drama before Prasad got his second term as President. Nehru wanted Vice President Dr S Radhakrishnan elevated but once again the majority view in the CPP favored a second term for Prasad.
Though Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s last term was comparatively a smooth affair he ensured, despite Nehru’s awe-inspiring national and international stature, that he was far from being a rubber-stamp President.
(Praveen Davar is a Member of National Commission for Minorities. The views expressed are personal. He may be contacted at [email protected])
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TEACHING READING, WRITING, AND LITERATURE AT HOME
If you want to play with the academic career of your child, here’s a sure way: let your school teach English by itself. Leave it to, in his teachers ‘ hands. He might learn how to read and write well. More probably, he won’t.
This warning is not an indictment of the school of your child. It may be okay. However, be aware that even great teachers have a hard time teaching these crucial skills on their own. This is one area where all teachers need time and assistance. If you want your child in school to do well, you must help him learn how to read and write.
That doesn’t mean that you have to take the lead in teaching language arts. That’s the job of the teachers. What you must do at home is to strengthen your efforts. You have to keep track of the classroom lessons and work with your child on them. For example, if he learns the letters of the alphabet in school, you must teach them at home, perhaps by pausing occasionally to ask about the different letters you read aloud, or perhaps by creating flashcards. If he learns to sound words, sit down with him every day for a while and encourage him to decode, letter by letter, and sound by sound. If you have a spelling test, call the list of words while each word is spelled. Read about his writings. Please make sure he does his homework.
As your child gets older, you may begin to feel intimidated by lessons you have forgotten about yourself, such as ” past participle ” and ” onomatopoeia. ” It may not be as difficult as you think to refresh your own memory. The most important thing, however, is to continue to show interest and enthusiasm. As long as your child knows that you are carefully watching, he will learn his lessons more.
One of your main aims is to get your child ready. The best way to do so is to share with him books and stories. One adult looking back on his childhood once wrote: ” There are some people who forget the awful task of learning to read when they are grown. Maybe the greatest effort the human being makes, and he must do it as a child. I remember that words-written or printed-were devils, and books were my enemies because they gave me pain. ” Then an aunt stepped forward with a book of Arthurian legends, and John Steinbeck fell under the spell of literature. Books became friends of himself.
Share with your child wonderful books and stories-as many as you can find. Chances are that he won’t grow up as a great novelist, but he might find a passion to read. The magic of his education and life will work.
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TEACHING READING, WRITING, AND LITERATURE AT HOME
If you want to play with the academic career of your child, here’s a sure way: let your school teach English by itself. Leave it to, in his teachers ‘ hands. He might learn how to read and write well. More probably, he won’t.
This warning is not an indictment of the school of your child. It may be okay. However, be aware that even great teachers have a hard time teaching these crucial skills on their own. This is one area where all teachers need time and assistance. If you want your child in school to do well, you must help him learn how to read and write.
That doesn’t mean that you have to take the lead in teaching language arts. That’s the job of the teachers. What you must do at home is to strengthen your efforts. You have to keep track of the classroom lessons and work with your child on them. For example, if he learns the letters of the alphabet in school, you must teach them at home, perhaps by pausing occasionally to ask about the different letters you read aloud, or perhaps by creating flashcards. If he learns to sound words, sit down with him every day for a while and encourage him to decode, letter by letter, and sound by sound. If you have a spelling test, call the list of words while each word is spelled. Read about his writings. Please make sure he does his homework.
As your child gets older, you may begin to feel intimidated by lessons you have forgotten about yourself, such as ” past participle ” and ” onomatopoeia. ” It may not be as difficult as you think to refresh your own memory. The most important thing, however, is to continue to show interest and enthusiasm. As long as your child knows that you are carefully watching, he will learn his lessons more.
One of your main aims is to get your child ready. The best way to do so is to share with him books and stories. One adult looking back on his childhood once wrote: ” There are some people who forget the awful task of learning to read when they are grown. Maybe the greatest effort the human being makes, and he must do it as a child. I remember that words-written or printed-were devils, and books were my enemies because they gave me pain. ” Then an aunt stepped forward with a book of Arthurian legends, and John Steinbeck fell under the spell of literature. Books became friends of himself.
Share with your child wonderful books and stories-as many as you can find. Chances are that he won’t grow up as a great novelist, but he might find a passion to read. The magic of his education and life will work.
| 563
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Ireland was not included in Britain’s conscription bill of January, 1916, but by then 90,000 Irishmen had volunteered, as many more would before 1918.
ON New Year’s Day, 1916, Ireland was involved in what John Redmond, the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party, had described as a “test to search men’s souls”. That test was the war being waged to decide the future of Europe.
As the year began, Irishmen serving in the ranks of the British and imperial armed forces were fighting on the battlefields of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. They were also fighting in the skies above those battlefields and on the high seas.
Since Britain had declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914, 158,900 British servicemen had died and countless others had been horrendously injured. Thousands of Irish servicemen were among those casualties and every town and parish in the country had lost someone in the war. As 1916 dawned, families were struggling to come to grips with their losses.
In his message to the armed forces on Christmas Day, 1915, King George V said: “Another year is drawing to a close as it began, in toil, bloodshed and suffering and I rejoice to know that the goal to which you are striving draws nearer into sight.” Sadly, he was wrong. As 1916 dawned, the stalemate continued on the Western Front, with no end in sight. At sea, the royal navy was maintaining its economic blockade of Germany. Although the German high seas fleet remained at its bases at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, German U-Boats were waging an effective campaign against British merchant shipping.
Fighting continued, even as people in Ireland were marking New Year’s Day: 158 British servicemen died that day. Among them was Private Timothy Brosnahan, of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards. He was the son of Michael and Ellen Brosnahan, of Churchtown, Buttevant, Co Cork. Private Patrick Donegan, a native of Dublin and member of the 1st Battalion Royal Dublin Fusiliers, also died. Donegan was one of 252,000 Allied servicemen — including 4,000 Irishmen — who died in the disastrous Gallipoli campaign, which was drawing to a close that January with victory for the Ottoman Empire.
Having suffered such high casualties and with the number of volunteers diminishing, the British government was forced to ensure that the army would be kept at the required strength. A military service bill was introduced in parliament that January.
This legislation provided for the conscription of single men aged 18 to 41. The inclusion of Ireland in the provisions of the bill was considered, but, after much heated debate, the government decided against it.
When their decision became public on January 4, John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party welcomed it, but Edward Carson and the Ulster Unionists were outraged. They said they considered the exclusion of Ireland to be “an insult and humiliation to the loyal and patriotic population of the country and an abandonment of the principle of equality of sacrifice in time of war on the part of His Majesty’s subjects in the United Kingdom”. Redmond, however, was happy that Ireland was already playing its part in the war. In January, 1916, he said that 90,000 men had already volunteered and he was confident that more would do so.
The motives of Irishmen who enlisted in the British armed forces varied. Some did so out of patriotism, more for economic reasons. Others responded to the appeals made by politicians, or were influenced by the call to fight for the “freedom of small nations”.
Some joined out of a sense of adventure. Among those was an 18-year-old native of Killorglin, Co Kerry, by the name of Thomas Bernadine Barry. After the war, Barry would join the IRA and win fame as the leader of the West Cork Flying Column. In his autobiography, he stated that “I was not influenced by the lurid appeal to fight to save Belgium or small nations. I knew nothing about nations, large or small. I went to the war for no other reason than that I wanted to see what war was like, to get a gun, to see new countries and to feel a grown man.”
In the weeks following the outbreak of the war, the thousands of Irishmen who enlisted were put in one of three divisions raised in Ireland for the “New Armies” being formed by Lord Kitchener, the British secretary of state for war.
The 10th (Irish) Division was formed in August, 1914, and placed under the command of Lt Gen Bryan Mahon, a native of Co Galway.
Comprised of Irish nationalists, it took part in the landing at Suvla Bay, on the Gallipoli Peninsula, on the night of August 6, 1915. This was the final attempt by British forces to break the deadlock on the peninsula, but it, too, failed.
In September, 1915, the division was moved to Salonika. On December 6 to 12, it took part in the battle of Kosturino, where it was defeated by the Bulgarian Army and it would spend the next few months refitting and preparing for its next battle.
After the Irish Volunteer movement split in September, 1914, over the issue of taking part in war, thousands of John Redmond’s National Volunteers flocked into the ranks of the British Army. These men joined the regiments that formed the 16th (Irish) Division, which had been established in September, 1914.
In December, 1915, the division moved to France, under the command of Major-General William Hickie, and was deployed in the vicinity of Bethune. As the new year dawned, it still hadn’t received its baptism of fire.
In Ulster, 13 battalions of Edward Carson’s Ulster Volunteer Force moved straight into the 36th (Ulster) Division, when that unit was formed in September 1914. It deployed to France in October, 1915, under the command of Major-General Oliver Nugent, and in January, 1916 it was undergoing intensive training in Abbeville.
For Irishmen serving in the ranks of the British or Imperial armed forces in January, 1916, the war would continue to be a ‘test to search men’s souls’.
Before the year was out, the men whose soul-searching led them to enlist in the British Army would take part in one of the bloodiest campaigns of the war. Hundreds of Irish sailors serving in the Royal Navy would also find themselves tested in the largest naval battle of the conflict.
However, back home in Ireland, there were those whose soul-searching didn’t lead them to enlist in the British armed forces.
Instead, they took part in an armed rebellion to establish an independent Irish republic.
Whether in the trenches of France, on the North Sea or on the streets of Dublin, the actions taken by these individuals, all Irishmen, all volunteers, would ensure that 100 years later the events of 1916 are still inscribed on the hearts and minds of the people of Ireland.
Gerry White is a military historian, and co-editor, with Brendan O’Shea, of ‘A Great Sacrifice: Cork Servicemen Who Died In The Great War’ (Echo Publications, 2010), and co-author, with Brendan O’Shea, of ‘Baptised in Blood: The Formation of the Cork Brigade Of Irish Volunteers 1913-1916’ (Mercier Press, 2005) and ‘The Burning of Cork’ (Mercier Press, 2006).
© Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved
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Ireland was not included in Britain’s conscription bill of January, 1916, but by then 90,000 Irishmen had volunteered, as many more would before 1918.
ON New Year’s Day, 1916, Ireland was involved in what John Redmond, the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party, had described as a “test to search men’s souls”. That test was the war being waged to decide the future of Europe.
As the year began, Irishmen serving in the ranks of the British and imperial armed forces were fighting on the battlefields of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. They were also fighting in the skies above those battlefields and on the high seas.
Since Britain had declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914, 158,900 British servicemen had died and countless others had been horrendously injured. Thousands of Irish servicemen were among those casualties and every town and parish in the country had lost someone in the war. As 1916 dawned, families were struggling to come to grips with their losses.
In his message to the armed forces on Christmas Day, 1915, King George V said: “Another year is drawing to a close as it began, in toil, bloodshed and suffering and I rejoice to know that the goal to which you are striving draws nearer into sight.” Sadly, he was wrong. As 1916 dawned, the stalemate continued on the Western Front, with no end in sight. At sea, the royal navy was maintaining its economic blockade of Germany. Although the German high seas fleet remained at its bases at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, German U-Boats were waging an effective campaign against British merchant shipping.
Fighting continued, even as people in Ireland were marking New Year’s Day: 158 British servicemen died that day. Among them was Private Timothy Brosnahan, of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards. He was the son of Michael and Ellen Brosnahan, of Churchtown, Buttevant, Co Cork. Private Patrick Donegan, a native of Dublin and member of the 1st Battalion Royal Dublin Fusiliers, also died. Donegan was one of 252,000 Allied servicemen — including 4,000 Irishmen — who died in the disastrous Gallipoli campaign, which was drawing to a close that January with victory for the Ottoman Empire.
Having suffered such high casualties and with the number of volunteers diminishing, the British government was forced to ensure that the army would be kept at the required strength. A military service bill was introduced in parliament that January.
This legislation provided for the conscription of single men aged 18 to 41. The inclusion of Ireland in the provisions of the bill was considered, but, after much heated debate, the government decided against it.
When their decision became public on January 4, John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party welcomed it, but Edward Carson and the Ulster Unionists were outraged. They said they considered the exclusion of Ireland to be “an insult and humiliation to the loyal and patriotic population of the country and an abandonment of the principle of equality of sacrifice in time of war on the part of His Majesty’s subjects in the United Kingdom”. Redmond, however, was happy that Ireland was already playing its part in the war. In January, 1916, he said that 90,000 men had already volunteered and he was confident that more would do so.
The motives of Irishmen who enlisted in the British armed forces varied. Some did so out of patriotism, more for economic reasons. Others responded to the appeals made by politicians, or were influenced by the call to fight for the “freedom of small nations”.
Some joined out of a sense of adventure. Among those was an 18-year-old native of Killorglin, Co Kerry, by the name of Thomas Bernadine Barry. After the war, Barry would join the IRA and win fame as the leader of the West Cork Flying Column. In his autobiography, he stated that “I was not influenced by the lurid appeal to fight to save Belgium or small nations. I knew nothing about nations, large or small. I went to the war for no other reason than that I wanted to see what war was like, to get a gun, to see new countries and to feel a grown man.”
In the weeks following the outbreak of the war, the thousands of Irishmen who enlisted were put in one of three divisions raised in Ireland for the “New Armies” being formed by Lord Kitchener, the British secretary of state for war.
The 10th (Irish) Division was formed in August, 1914, and placed under the command of Lt Gen Bryan Mahon, a native of Co Galway.
Comprised of Irish nationalists, it took part in the landing at Suvla Bay, on the Gallipoli Peninsula, on the night of August 6, 1915. This was the final attempt by British forces to break the deadlock on the peninsula, but it, too, failed.
In September, 1915, the division was moved to Salonika. On December 6 to 12, it took part in the battle of Kosturino, where it was defeated by the Bulgarian Army and it would spend the next few months refitting and preparing for its next battle.
After the Irish Volunteer movement split in September, 1914, over the issue of taking part in war, thousands of John Redmond’s National Volunteers flocked into the ranks of the British Army. These men joined the regiments that formed the 16th (Irish) Division, which had been established in September, 1914.
In December, 1915, the division moved to France, under the command of Major-General William Hickie, and was deployed in the vicinity of Bethune. As the new year dawned, it still hadn’t received its baptism of fire.
In Ulster, 13 battalions of Edward Carson’s Ulster Volunteer Force moved straight into the 36th (Ulster) Division, when that unit was formed in September 1914. It deployed to France in October, 1915, under the command of Major-General Oliver Nugent, and in January, 1916 it was undergoing intensive training in Abbeville.
For Irishmen serving in the ranks of the British or Imperial armed forces in January, 1916, the war would continue to be a ‘test to search men’s souls’.
Before the year was out, the men whose soul-searching led them to enlist in the British Army would take part in one of the bloodiest campaigns of the war. Hundreds of Irish sailors serving in the Royal Navy would also find themselves tested in the largest naval battle of the conflict.
However, back home in Ireland, there were those whose soul-searching didn’t lead them to enlist in the British armed forces.
Instead, they took part in an armed rebellion to establish an independent Irish republic.
Whether in the trenches of France, on the North Sea or on the streets of Dublin, the actions taken by these individuals, all Irishmen, all volunteers, would ensure that 100 years later the events of 1916 are still inscribed on the hearts and minds of the people of Ireland.
Gerry White is a military historian, and co-editor, with Brendan O’Shea, of ‘A Great Sacrifice: Cork Servicemen Who Died In The Great War’ (Echo Publications, 2010), and co-author, with Brendan O’Shea, of ‘Baptised in Blood: The Formation of the Cork Brigade Of Irish Volunteers 1913-1916’ (Mercier Press, 2005) and ‘The Burning of Cork’ (Mercier Press, 2006).
© Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved
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American History Dbq
Food prices were at incredibly low prices when the 1 ass’s began. This led to farmers having to grow more crops, but as “Causes of Agricultural Unrest” shows, this only helped to further decrease food prices. Unfortunately, the farmers could not just produce less and wait for prices to increase because they didn’t have the time to wait for prices to increase. The farmers believed that deflation was the cause of the food prices dropping. According to the “United Sates government data,” the farmer’s had a very valid point.
Between 1865 and 1895 the population of the United States almost doubled, while the money in circulation in 1880 was even less than in 1865. The farmers solution to the deflation was an increase in cheap money, which is also known as silver coinage. However, the Republican party had conservative ideas and wanted to keep the gold standard. So the farmers created the radical, agrarian party known as the Populist party. As shown in “The platform of the People’s party,” he Populists believed in increasing silver to help the farmers.
And although the Populists lost the election. No one remembers the “Acceptance speech of William McKinley. ” The American people remember W. J. Bran’s Cross of Gold speech and his ideas of silver coinage. As the number of crops farmers had to produce increased, so did the amount of money the farmers had to barrow from the banks. In reaction to the increasing number of loans, the banks charged very high interest rates. These high interest hurt the poor farmers even more and often the farmers could to repay the banks. The Farmer’s Voice” depicts hundreds of impoverished farmers in shackles, being taken to the court house because they could not pay their farm mortgages from the bank. The late 1 9th century was filled with political corruption and the political machine was created. In most cases, state machines were republican and favored big businesses. When railroad companies decided to increase short haul rates and decrease long haul rates, the government was not upset because the long hall rates were great for big genuineness and only hurt farmers.
In the “Testimony of George W. Parker” the corruption is evident in his Statement “There is a decided distinction between local and through business different rules and practices apply to them. ” In “The Octopus,” one can see the harsh effects of the higher short haul rates on farmers. Overall, farmers had every right to be upset during the late 19th century. Their complaints about the deflation and unregulated railroad rates were valid and clearly the cause of their suffering.
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] | 1
|
American History Dbq
Food prices were at incredibly low prices when the 1 ass’s began. This led to farmers having to grow more crops, but as “Causes of Agricultural Unrest” shows, this only helped to further decrease food prices. Unfortunately, the farmers could not just produce less and wait for prices to increase because they didn’t have the time to wait for prices to increase. The farmers believed that deflation was the cause of the food prices dropping. According to the “United Sates government data,” the farmer’s had a very valid point.
Between 1865 and 1895 the population of the United States almost doubled, while the money in circulation in 1880 was even less than in 1865. The farmers solution to the deflation was an increase in cheap money, which is also known as silver coinage. However, the Republican party had conservative ideas and wanted to keep the gold standard. So the farmers created the radical, agrarian party known as the Populist party. As shown in “The platform of the People’s party,” he Populists believed in increasing silver to help the farmers.
And although the Populists lost the election. No one remembers the “Acceptance speech of William McKinley. ” The American people remember W. J. Bran’s Cross of Gold speech and his ideas of silver coinage. As the number of crops farmers had to produce increased, so did the amount of money the farmers had to barrow from the banks. In reaction to the increasing number of loans, the banks charged very high interest rates. These high interest hurt the poor farmers even more and often the farmers could to repay the banks. The Farmer’s Voice” depicts hundreds of impoverished farmers in shackles, being taken to the court house because they could not pay their farm mortgages from the bank. The late 1 9th century was filled with political corruption and the political machine was created. In most cases, state machines were republican and favored big businesses. When railroad companies decided to increase short haul rates and decrease long haul rates, the government was not upset because the long hall rates were great for big genuineness and only hurt farmers.
In the “Testimony of George W. Parker” the corruption is evident in his Statement “There is a decided distinction between local and through business different rules and practices apply to them. ” In “The Octopus,” one can see the harsh effects of the higher short haul rates on farmers. Overall, farmers had every right to be upset during the late 19th century. Their complaints about the deflation and unregulated railroad rates were valid and clearly the cause of their suffering.
| 547
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Philae Temple Overview
It is believed to be the former center of worship to the goddess Isis during the Ptolemaic period of Ancient Egypt.
The Ancient Egyptians built a beautiful and magnificent Temple on this island for the Goddess Isis and her connection with Osiris, Horus, and the Kingship, during the Ptolemaic period of Egyptian History.
The ancient Egyptians saw in their name for Philae an etymology with the meaning "island of the time [of Ra]", i.e. creation, but the islands history is later than that. it was a barrack also for Macedonian and Roman soldiers in their turn. Philae Island was a rocky island in the middle of the River Nile, south of Aswan but the Temple became submerged after the first Aswan dam was built in 1906, and it was not until the seventies that many nations attempted to save the Temple.
All these countries, together with UNESCO, selected a suitable place, but they had to wait until the completion of the High Dam, in 1971, which would stabilize the level of the water around their chosen island. The first pylon consists of two towers and a central doorway, which was decorated with reliefs by Nectanebo.
The east colonnade is unfinished, with only 6 of 16 columns completed. The others are roughly hewn with unfinished capitals. West of the forecourt, just behind the first pylon, is the Birth House (Mammisi). This was dedicated to Hathor-Isis in honor of the birth of her son Horus and was where the king conducted rituals securing his legitimate dependency from Horus.
The second pylon is 105ft (32m) wide and 40ft (12m) high and covered in reliefs. Those on the central doorway are by Euergetes II. Temple of Isis itself, which consists of a court, a vestibule, several antechambers and the inner sanctum where the sacred image of Isis was kept.
The new island was called Egilica (also called Agilika), and it was completely reshaped to imitate Philae Island as closely as possible. Each and every stone had to be numbered, and then replaced, in the same position, in the new location. It was a massive, and very complicated. The temple has several shrines and sanctuaries such as Trajan’s Kiosk or Pharaoh's Bed. Visit Philae temple at night to attend the Sound and Light show.
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Philae Temple Overview
It is believed to be the former center of worship to the goddess Isis during the Ptolemaic period of Ancient Egypt.
The Ancient Egyptians built a beautiful and magnificent Temple on this island for the Goddess Isis and her connection with Osiris, Horus, and the Kingship, during the Ptolemaic period of Egyptian History.
The ancient Egyptians saw in their name for Philae an etymology with the meaning "island of the time [of Ra]", i.e. creation, but the islands history is later than that. it was a barrack also for Macedonian and Roman soldiers in their turn. Philae Island was a rocky island in the middle of the River Nile, south of Aswan but the Temple became submerged after the first Aswan dam was built in 1906, and it was not until the seventies that many nations attempted to save the Temple.
All these countries, together with UNESCO, selected a suitable place, but they had to wait until the completion of the High Dam, in 1971, which would stabilize the level of the water around their chosen island. The first pylon consists of two towers and a central doorway, which was decorated with reliefs by Nectanebo.
The east colonnade is unfinished, with only 6 of 16 columns completed. The others are roughly hewn with unfinished capitals. West of the forecourt, just behind the first pylon, is the Birth House (Mammisi). This was dedicated to Hathor-Isis in honor of the birth of her son Horus and was where the king conducted rituals securing his legitimate dependency from Horus.
The second pylon is 105ft (32m) wide and 40ft (12m) high and covered in reliefs. Those on the central doorway are by Euergetes II. Temple of Isis itself, which consists of a court, a vestibule, several antechambers and the inner sanctum where the sacred image of Isis was kept.
The new island was called Egilica (also called Agilika), and it was completely reshaped to imitate Philae Island as closely as possible. Each and every stone had to be numbered, and then replaced, in the same position, in the new location. It was a massive, and very complicated. The temple has several shrines and sanctuaries such as Trajan’s Kiosk or Pharaoh's Bed. Visit Philae temple at night to attend the Sound and Light show.
| 523
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Stegosaurus was a plant-eating dinosaur that lived during the Jurassic period, 155-145 million years ago.
Stegosaurus could grow 30 ft (9m) long and up to 14 ft (4m) high. It was thought to weigh around 7000 pounds.
It is one of the most well-known dinosaurs. See if you can recognise it.
It is most famous for the two rows of bony plates on its back called scutes. The scutes could grow 2 ft tall, but scientists aren't sure why they were there. What do you think Stegosaurus would have needed these bony plates for?
Some scientists thought they used them to defend themselves but the plates were too thin for that. Other scientists believe its plates could flap and were used to attract mates (similar to peacocks). The interesting thing is that the bony plates weren’t attached to its skeleton, but to its skin! They were also filled with blood vessels. Because of this, it is believed Stegosaurus used its scutes to control its body temperature.
Another thing Stegosaurus is famous for is its long tail ending in 4 lethal spikes called a thagomizer. To defend itself, Stegosaurus probably swung its tail at its predators.
It had 3 toes on its back legs and 5 on its front legs and walked on four legs, travelling in herds.
Its back legs were longer than its front legs, which make scientists think that it may have been able to run. Because of its shorter front legs, its head was close to the ground, perfect for eating low growing plants.
Stegosaurus had a short neck with a small flat head and turtle-like beak. It had no front teeth and its chewing teeth were small and triangular, not very good for grinding. It was likely to have stored food in its cheeks, giving it plenty of time to chew before swallowing.
Stegosaurus might have been a big dinosaur but its brain definitely wasn’t! It was only around the size of a dog’s. It is thought to be one of the least intelligent dinosaurs of all.
Did you know?
- Stegosaurus lived in what is now western North America and Portugal.
- At one time, scientists thought the Stegosaurus had a second brain near its tail, this idea is no longer thought to be correct.
- The name Stegosaurus means 'roofed lizard' due to the plates on its back.
- Natural enemies of Stegosaurus were Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus.
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] | 2
|
Stegosaurus was a plant-eating dinosaur that lived during the Jurassic period, 155-145 million years ago.
Stegosaurus could grow 30 ft (9m) long and up to 14 ft (4m) high. It was thought to weigh around 7000 pounds.
It is one of the most well-known dinosaurs. See if you can recognise it.
It is most famous for the two rows of bony plates on its back called scutes. The scutes could grow 2 ft tall, but scientists aren't sure why they were there. What do you think Stegosaurus would have needed these bony plates for?
Some scientists thought they used them to defend themselves but the plates were too thin for that. Other scientists believe its plates could flap and were used to attract mates (similar to peacocks). The interesting thing is that the bony plates weren’t attached to its skeleton, but to its skin! They were also filled with blood vessels. Because of this, it is believed Stegosaurus used its scutes to control its body temperature.
Another thing Stegosaurus is famous for is its long tail ending in 4 lethal spikes called a thagomizer. To defend itself, Stegosaurus probably swung its tail at its predators.
It had 3 toes on its back legs and 5 on its front legs and walked on four legs, travelling in herds.
Its back legs were longer than its front legs, which make scientists think that it may have been able to run. Because of its shorter front legs, its head was close to the ground, perfect for eating low growing plants.
Stegosaurus had a short neck with a small flat head and turtle-like beak. It had no front teeth and its chewing teeth were small and triangular, not very good for grinding. It was likely to have stored food in its cheeks, giving it plenty of time to chew before swallowing.
Stegosaurus might have been a big dinosaur but its brain definitely wasn’t! It was only around the size of a dog’s. It is thought to be one of the least intelligent dinosaurs of all.
Did you know?
- Stegosaurus lived in what is now western North America and Portugal.
- At one time, scientists thought the Stegosaurus had a second brain near its tail, this idea is no longer thought to be correct.
- The name Stegosaurus means 'roofed lizard' due to the plates on its back.
- Natural enemies of Stegosaurus were Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus.
| 527
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Australian Cattle Dogs, Hull said, are the only breed resulting from the successful hybridization of dogs and dingoes.
“Australia, more than any other country, was so dependent on dogs,” Hull said. “Especially native bred dogs that could cope with all of the hardships of the land.”
The progenitors of the breed were created by the Hall family. These early Australian settlers owned 700+ square miles outside of Sydney. They needed a dog that could deal with wild cattle imported from South Africa. Sheep didn’t survive well in the hostile environment of the new country. Beef cattle could survive, but they needed tough dogs to help manage them.
The Hall family crossed an English dog known as the “droving cur,” tailless, square in profile, speckled blue, with dingoes. Dingoes, as a species, are classified as wolves.
Dingo genes are so strong they dominate domestic genes, Hull said. It took multiple generations of back crossing to the domestic dogs to create the dog we know today. By 1832 the Halls had two types, including the Australian Cattle Dog progenitor.
These dogs, known as Hall’s Heelers, were privately held from 1830-70. Managers of 200 Hall properties carried forward the breeding program.
When the family sold all of their holdings after 1870, the dogs became available to the general public.
Around this same time, long distance droving dogs became redundant with the advent of wire fencing and railroads.
Hall’s dogs were designed to work wild cattle. When cattle became quieter and easier to manage, with the import of new cattle breeds, fences and transportation, the dogs were too “hard” for the domestic cattle.
Border collies, kelpies and other “collie” type breeds became popular to work the more domesticated stock.
The show fraternity preserved the Australian Cattle Dog after its job was no longer needed.
“They are a dog that has re-invented itself as all around Australian guard dog and companion,” Hull said. “They are supposed to have a suspicious glint in their eyes.”
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Australian Cattle Dogs, Hull said, are the only breed resulting from the successful hybridization of dogs and dingoes.
“Australia, more than any other country, was so dependent on dogs,” Hull said. “Especially native bred dogs that could cope with all of the hardships of the land.”
The progenitors of the breed were created by the Hall family. These early Australian settlers owned 700+ square miles outside of Sydney. They needed a dog that could deal with wild cattle imported from South Africa. Sheep didn’t survive well in the hostile environment of the new country. Beef cattle could survive, but they needed tough dogs to help manage them.
The Hall family crossed an English dog known as the “droving cur,” tailless, square in profile, speckled blue, with dingoes. Dingoes, as a species, are classified as wolves.
Dingo genes are so strong they dominate domestic genes, Hull said. It took multiple generations of back crossing to the domestic dogs to create the dog we know today. By 1832 the Halls had two types, including the Australian Cattle Dog progenitor.
These dogs, known as Hall’s Heelers, were privately held from 1830-70. Managers of 200 Hall properties carried forward the breeding program.
When the family sold all of their holdings after 1870, the dogs became available to the general public.
Around this same time, long distance droving dogs became redundant with the advent of wire fencing and railroads.
Hall’s dogs were designed to work wild cattle. When cattle became quieter and easier to manage, with the import of new cattle breeds, fences and transportation, the dogs were too “hard” for the domestic cattle.
Border collies, kelpies and other “collie” type breeds became popular to work the more domesticated stock.
The show fraternity preserved the Australian Cattle Dog after its job was no longer needed.
“They are a dog that has re-invented itself as all around Australian guard dog and companion,” Hull said. “They are supposed to have a suspicious glint in their eyes.”
| 436
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Prince is a 16th-century political treatise by the Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From his correspondence, a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus (Of Principalities). However, the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after Machiavelli’s death. This was carried out with the permission of the Medici pope Clement VII, but “long before then, in fact since the first appearance of The Prince in manuscript, controversy had swirled about his writings”. The Prince was written as if it were a traditional work in the mirrors for princes style, it is generally agreed that it was especially innovative. This is partly because it was written in the vernacular Italian rather than Latin, a practice that had become increasingly popular since the publication of Dante’s Divine Comedy and other works of Renaissance literature.
Audiobook running time: 5:48:18
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The Prince is a 16th-century political treatise by the Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From his correspondence, a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus (Of Principalities). However, the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after Machiavelli’s death. This was carried out with the permission of the Medici pope Clement VII, but “long before then, in fact since the first appearance of The Prince in manuscript, controversy had swirled about his writings”. The Prince was written as if it were a traditional work in the mirrors for princes style, it is generally agreed that it was especially innovative. This is partly because it was written in the vernacular Italian rather than Latin, a practice that had become increasingly popular since the publication of Dante’s Divine Comedy and other works of Renaissance literature.
Audiobook running time: 5:48:18
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ENGLISH
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Throughout the play Shakespeare presents Hamlet as a weak man who is bitter towards the women in his life. This is mainly due to his mother, Gertrude betraying Hamlets father soon after his death. Hamlet is disgusted in his mother's behaviour and as they were living in a patriarchal society this sort of behaviour was deemed unacceptable. Hamlet's frustration is not only directed towards the women around him but women kind as a whole.
At the beginning of the play Hamlet is distraught at the death of his father and his mother's re-marriage to Claudius, Hamlet's uncle. Women at the time were expected to be obedient and obtain an extended period of mourning, and Hamlets mother did not. King Claudius, Hamlet's uncle flaunts his and Gertrude's relationship publicly, “Therefore our sometime sister, now our queen”, which Hamlet dislikes as he idolises his father and he believes his mother should not have re-married, especially not “within a month”.
Queen Gertrude is presented by Shakespeare as a cold woman as she tells Hamlet it is common and “all that lives must die” and explains to him that he should not be so upset. Gertrude criticises Hamlet for his response to the situation because she has to make her own actions valid. Hamlet then directs his frustration towards his mother saying, “These but the trappings and the suits of woe”, showing that he feels it is easy for someone to put on the act of grieving - but he is actually grieving.
King Claudius does not want Hamlet to grieve so much in case he wonders how his father died. To try and stop Hamlet grieving Claudius says that, “tis unmanly grief” so that Hamlet feels like he is in the wrong. Shakespeare shows the audience that Claudius has done as much wrong as Gertrude so that they question why Hamlet blames his mother and not Claudius.
A key section in the play is Hamlet's soliloquy. This section is important as Hamlet is on stage by himself so the audience focus on him and what his true feelings are. Here, Shakespeare shows that Hamlet thinks his mother is “rank and gross” conveying strong images of disgust to the audience. He also shows that Hamlet idolises his father, “so excellent a king”, the two things are a contrast between his feelings of his two parents.
Also, Hamlet states: “Frailty the name is woman!” shows that Hamlet believes women are easily corrupted and this is where the audience begin to see Hamlet's rejection towards women kind as a whole take place, and the exclamation mark shows how strong his feelings are. Hamlet says a “beast…would have mourned longer” than his mother which creates an image of how horrible his mother is. Shakespeare makes Hamlet use such language to show the extent of his hatred for her and to portray to the audience Hamlet's madness. He has very strong opinions of his mother, “o, most wicked speed, to post with such dexterity to incestuous sheets!” which shows how strong his hatred for her is. The use of the word “wicked” portrays Hamlet's madness to the audience as it is such a powerful word to describe someone, especially his own mother.
It is not only Hamlet who finds his mother's and uncle's relationship strange as Horatio mentions the wedding and Hamlet replies, “the funeral baked meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables”, implying that the wedding was so quick after his father's death. Also, in this section Hamlet's love for his father is mentioned again, “I shall not look upon his like again” which shows Hamlet believes his father was one of a kind. At the end of this scene a rhyming couplet, “Till then sit still, my soul: foul deeds will rise, though all the earth o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes” show what is going to be revealed to Hamlet about his father's death. Hamlet is the product of a patriarchal society and therefore he idolises his father.
In Act 1, scene 3 Laertes and Polonius try to tell Ophelia that Hamlet is not interested in her and that she is behaving inappropriately with regards to the way women are supposed to behave in a patriarchal society. The scene begins with Laertes talking to Ophelia; he tries to show her that Hamlet's affection towards her is “not lasting”. He explains that Hamlet “may not, as unvalued persons do, carve for himself”, meaning that others make his decisions for him. Shakespeare shows Laertes concern at Ophelia's feelings for Hamlet through a metaphor, “The canker galls the infants of the spring, too oft before their buttons be disclosed”, like a plant that blooms too early, showing he feels she has made a mistake because she is young. Also, “canker” shows that something is diseased so this shows that Laertes thinks Ophelia is behaving inappropriately.
Then, Lord Polonius tells Ophelia that she is not following the conventions of the society as she accepting Hamlets affection freely, “he hath very oft of late given private time to you”. Polonius also calls Ophelia “a green girl” which is comparing her to a young plant that is not ready for this relationship and says “you have ta'en these tenders for true pay” showing that he believes she is naïve and that she believes everything Hamlet says. Polonius also explains that “when the blood burns” Hamlet will say anything to Ophelia. But he further explains that their passion is like a “blaze” which shows that it is there and then gone. In this section Polonius uses saintly language such as “unholy” to show the extent of his emotion. Ophelia, replies “I shall obey, my Lord”, showing that she listened to her father, as he is in charge in the patriarchal society in which they live.
Another key section in the play is Hamlet's response to the ghost of his father. This is where Hamlet's father reveals that it was Claudius who killed him, “The serpent that did sting thy father's life now wears his crown”. The use of “serpent” shows that Hamlet's father believes it is Claudius who has behaved inappropriately. The ghost then states “seeming-virtuous queen”, which shows he feels that Gertrude appeared to be loyal and good but she is not. The ghost tells Hamlet not to blame persecute his mother, “nor let thy soul contrive against thy mother” as he believes it is Claudius who should be persecuted.
After the ghost leaves the pace on stage accelerates which shows the audience Hamlet's increasing madness. Most of Hamlet's anger is directed towards his mother, “O most pernicious woman!” shows that Hamlet is extremely angry because of his 'evil' mother and the exclamation could show he is on the verge, if not mad. As well as this Shakespeare presents the supernatural as a temptation and as unreliable as he does not agree with revenge. Shakespeare shows that the supernatural brings around the downfall of Hamlet and from this point onwards Hamlet's hatred for his mother and women kind increases.
A short section between Ophelia and Polonius shows that others are noticing the beginning of Hamlet's madness. Prior to this scene Hamlet has been wooing Ophelia and then he completely changes and becomes angry, Ophelia tells Polonius that, “he falls to such perusal of my face”, showing that Hamlet was trying to understand her. She also states, “He raised a sigh so piteous and profound as it did seem to shatter all his bulk”, this shows that he then concluded that all women were evil, including Ophelia which upset him. However, Shakespeare does not want us to believe that all women are evil as he encourages the audience not to trust Hamlet as he is crazy, which is shown by Hamlet's use of strong, description of his mother, “wicked” and Shakespeare's dramatic staging when Hamlet jumped in front of Ophelia as if he was crazy and when he walked off in a trance.
Due to Hamlet's increasing madness and anger, in Act 3, scene 1 he rejects Ophelia. By this point he believes all women are evil and he says to Ophelia, “Get thee to a nunnery, why wouldst thou be a breeder of sinners?” He believes women are inherently evil and born sinful, which can be related to Eve committing a sin in the garden of Eden, she was the first woman on earth and she committed a sin, so the rest of women kind must do the same in Hamlet's mixed up mind.
Furthermore, Hamlet believes that even if Ophelia does everything right she will still be evil as she is a woman, he sates: “for wise men know well enough what monsters you make of them”, this shows he believes women can corrupt men. This statement is targeted at all women however his hatred for all women is related to his mother's behaviour. He believes that she corrupted Claudius so that he made bad decisions and that she was the one disrespecting his father. Hamlet blames the behaviour of women for his downfall, “it hath made me mad”. At the end of the scene Hamlets rage increases and he directs most of his anger towards Ophelia, at this point she realises that Hamlet has gone mad.
An important section in the play is the conversation between Hamlet and Gertrude. Here, Shakespeare uses a lot of metaphorical language for Hamlet such as, “makes marriage-vows as false as dicers' oaths”, this is to portray to the audience the extent of his madness although it shows Gertrude that Hamlet strongly disagrees with her behaviour. As well as this, some of Hamlet's speech is in long paragraphs showing that he is rambling and pouring all his emotions out in a sense of anger such as the scene where he rejects Ophelia. In this section Hamlet has a long speech of nearly forty lines, which includes the statement: “you cannot call it love”, at this moment he is directing this rage at Ophelia but his true feelings of hatred are directed at his mother.
Later in the scene the ghost of Hamlet's father appears, but only to him. Gertrude cannot see the ghost and therefore she believes Hamlet is mad, which is important as Shakespeare tries to portray to the audience that Hamlet is mad and therefore this is one of the factors that confirms it. The ghost comes to protect Hamlet's mother, “is but to whet thy almost blunted purpose”, for a moment Hamlet is calmer and reasonable but in trying to get his mother to accept her unacceptable behaviour he is raised into another rage. He asks his mother to “assume a virtue”, as he wants her to change and he wants her to repent her sins.
In conclusion, I believe that Hamlet rejects women because of his mother's behaviour and her betrayal of his father. Hamlet is still young when his father dies, and the stress of his mothers inappropriate actions confuse him. My opinion is that Hamlet does over react to the situation but if his mother should have paid more attention to him rather than his uncle. The extremity of his views of all women being evil are a way for Shakespeare to portray to the audience that women are not actually evil and that Hamlet is in a state of madness.
Shakespeare shows that Hamlet's rejection of women is an over reaction to a situation that could be solved more easily. In Shakespeare's opinion the supernatural has a bad influence on people and it can contribute to somebody's madness. Also, Shakespeare presents the supernatural as unreliable so that it makes Hamlet seem crazier and because he idolises his father he would do anything for him. Overall, I believe Hamlet's rejection to women is due to the actions of his mother and the conventions of a patriarchal society where men are the leader of the house. Hamlet rejects Ophelia as she shows a few similar characteristics to his mother and he rejects women kind as a whole as the people around him have led him to believe all women are evil.
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Throughout the play Shakespeare presents Hamlet as a weak man who is bitter towards the women in his life. This is mainly due to his mother, Gertrude betraying Hamlets father soon after his death. Hamlet is disgusted in his mother's behaviour and as they were living in a patriarchal society this sort of behaviour was deemed unacceptable. Hamlet's frustration is not only directed towards the women around him but women kind as a whole.
At the beginning of the play Hamlet is distraught at the death of his father and his mother's re-marriage to Claudius, Hamlet's uncle. Women at the time were expected to be obedient and obtain an extended period of mourning, and Hamlets mother did not. King Claudius, Hamlet's uncle flaunts his and Gertrude's relationship publicly, “Therefore our sometime sister, now our queen”, which Hamlet dislikes as he idolises his father and he believes his mother should not have re-married, especially not “within a month”.
Queen Gertrude is presented by Shakespeare as a cold woman as she tells Hamlet it is common and “all that lives must die” and explains to him that he should not be so upset. Gertrude criticises Hamlet for his response to the situation because she has to make her own actions valid. Hamlet then directs his frustration towards his mother saying, “These but the trappings and the suits of woe”, showing that he feels it is easy for someone to put on the act of grieving - but he is actually grieving.
King Claudius does not want Hamlet to grieve so much in case he wonders how his father died. To try and stop Hamlet grieving Claudius says that, “tis unmanly grief” so that Hamlet feels like he is in the wrong. Shakespeare shows the audience that Claudius has done as much wrong as Gertrude so that they question why Hamlet blames his mother and not Claudius.
A key section in the play is Hamlet's soliloquy. This section is important as Hamlet is on stage by himself so the audience focus on him and what his true feelings are. Here, Shakespeare shows that Hamlet thinks his mother is “rank and gross” conveying strong images of disgust to the audience. He also shows that Hamlet idolises his father, “so excellent a king”, the two things are a contrast between his feelings of his two parents.
Also, Hamlet states: “Frailty the name is woman!” shows that Hamlet believes women are easily corrupted and this is where the audience begin to see Hamlet's rejection towards women kind as a whole take place, and the exclamation mark shows how strong his feelings are. Hamlet says a “beast…would have mourned longer” than his mother which creates an image of how horrible his mother is. Shakespeare makes Hamlet use such language to show the extent of his hatred for her and to portray to the audience Hamlet's madness. He has very strong opinions of his mother, “o, most wicked speed, to post with such dexterity to incestuous sheets!” which shows how strong his hatred for her is. The use of the word “wicked” portrays Hamlet's madness to the audience as it is such a powerful word to describe someone, especially his own mother.
It is not only Hamlet who finds his mother's and uncle's relationship strange as Horatio mentions the wedding and Hamlet replies, “the funeral baked meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables”, implying that the wedding was so quick after his father's death. Also, in this section Hamlet's love for his father is mentioned again, “I shall not look upon his like again” which shows Hamlet believes his father was one of a kind. At the end of this scene a rhyming couplet, “Till then sit still, my soul: foul deeds will rise, though all the earth o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes” show what is going to be revealed to Hamlet about his father's death. Hamlet is the product of a patriarchal society and therefore he idolises his father.
In Act 1, scene 3 Laertes and Polonius try to tell Ophelia that Hamlet is not interested in her and that she is behaving inappropriately with regards to the way women are supposed to behave in a patriarchal society. The scene begins with Laertes talking to Ophelia; he tries to show her that Hamlet's affection towards her is “not lasting”. He explains that Hamlet “may not, as unvalued persons do, carve for himself”, meaning that others make his decisions for him. Shakespeare shows Laertes concern at Ophelia's feelings for Hamlet through a metaphor, “The canker galls the infants of the spring, too oft before their buttons be disclosed”, like a plant that blooms too early, showing he feels she has made a mistake because she is young. Also, “canker” shows that something is diseased so this shows that Laertes thinks Ophelia is behaving inappropriately.
Then, Lord Polonius tells Ophelia that she is not following the conventions of the society as she accepting Hamlets affection freely, “he hath very oft of late given private time to you”. Polonius also calls Ophelia “a green girl” which is comparing her to a young plant that is not ready for this relationship and says “you have ta'en these tenders for true pay” showing that he believes she is naïve and that she believes everything Hamlet says. Polonius also explains that “when the blood burns” Hamlet will say anything to Ophelia. But he further explains that their passion is like a “blaze” which shows that it is there and then gone. In this section Polonius uses saintly language such as “unholy” to show the extent of his emotion. Ophelia, replies “I shall obey, my Lord”, showing that she listened to her father, as he is in charge in the patriarchal society in which they live.
Another key section in the play is Hamlet's response to the ghost of his father. This is where Hamlet's father reveals that it was Claudius who killed him, “The serpent that did sting thy father's life now wears his crown”. The use of “serpent” shows that Hamlet's father believes it is Claudius who has behaved inappropriately. The ghost then states “seeming-virtuous queen”, which shows he feels that Gertrude appeared to be loyal and good but she is not. The ghost tells Hamlet not to blame persecute his mother, “nor let thy soul contrive against thy mother” as he believes it is Claudius who should be persecuted.
After the ghost leaves the pace on stage accelerates which shows the audience Hamlet's increasing madness. Most of Hamlet's anger is directed towards his mother, “O most pernicious woman!” shows that Hamlet is extremely angry because of his 'evil' mother and the exclamation could show he is on the verge, if not mad. As well as this Shakespeare presents the supernatural as a temptation and as unreliable as he does not agree with revenge. Shakespeare shows that the supernatural brings around the downfall of Hamlet and from this point onwards Hamlet's hatred for his mother and women kind increases.
A short section between Ophelia and Polonius shows that others are noticing the beginning of Hamlet's madness. Prior to this scene Hamlet has been wooing Ophelia and then he completely changes and becomes angry, Ophelia tells Polonius that, “he falls to such perusal of my face”, showing that Hamlet was trying to understand her. She also states, “He raised a sigh so piteous and profound as it did seem to shatter all his bulk”, this shows that he then concluded that all women were evil, including Ophelia which upset him. However, Shakespeare does not want us to believe that all women are evil as he encourages the audience not to trust Hamlet as he is crazy, which is shown by Hamlet's use of strong, description of his mother, “wicked” and Shakespeare's dramatic staging when Hamlet jumped in front of Ophelia as if he was crazy and when he walked off in a trance.
Due to Hamlet's increasing madness and anger, in Act 3, scene 1 he rejects Ophelia. By this point he believes all women are evil and he says to Ophelia, “Get thee to a nunnery, why wouldst thou be a breeder of sinners?” He believes women are inherently evil and born sinful, which can be related to Eve committing a sin in the garden of Eden, she was the first woman on earth and she committed a sin, so the rest of women kind must do the same in Hamlet's mixed up mind.
Furthermore, Hamlet believes that even if Ophelia does everything right she will still be evil as she is a woman, he sates: “for wise men know well enough what monsters you make of them”, this shows he believes women can corrupt men. This statement is targeted at all women however his hatred for all women is related to his mother's behaviour. He believes that she corrupted Claudius so that he made bad decisions and that she was the one disrespecting his father. Hamlet blames the behaviour of women for his downfall, “it hath made me mad”. At the end of the scene Hamlets rage increases and he directs most of his anger towards Ophelia, at this point she realises that Hamlet has gone mad.
An important section in the play is the conversation between Hamlet and Gertrude. Here, Shakespeare uses a lot of metaphorical language for Hamlet such as, “makes marriage-vows as false as dicers' oaths”, this is to portray to the audience the extent of his madness although it shows Gertrude that Hamlet strongly disagrees with her behaviour. As well as this, some of Hamlet's speech is in long paragraphs showing that he is rambling and pouring all his emotions out in a sense of anger such as the scene where he rejects Ophelia. In this section Hamlet has a long speech of nearly forty lines, which includes the statement: “you cannot call it love”, at this moment he is directing this rage at Ophelia but his true feelings of hatred are directed at his mother.
Later in the scene the ghost of Hamlet's father appears, but only to him. Gertrude cannot see the ghost and therefore she believes Hamlet is mad, which is important as Shakespeare tries to portray to the audience that Hamlet is mad and therefore this is one of the factors that confirms it. The ghost comes to protect Hamlet's mother, “is but to whet thy almost blunted purpose”, for a moment Hamlet is calmer and reasonable but in trying to get his mother to accept her unacceptable behaviour he is raised into another rage. He asks his mother to “assume a virtue”, as he wants her to change and he wants her to repent her sins.
In conclusion, I believe that Hamlet rejects women because of his mother's behaviour and her betrayal of his father. Hamlet is still young when his father dies, and the stress of his mothers inappropriate actions confuse him. My opinion is that Hamlet does over react to the situation but if his mother should have paid more attention to him rather than his uncle. The extremity of his views of all women being evil are a way for Shakespeare to portray to the audience that women are not actually evil and that Hamlet is in a state of madness.
Shakespeare shows that Hamlet's rejection of women is an over reaction to a situation that could be solved more easily. In Shakespeare's opinion the supernatural has a bad influence on people and it can contribute to somebody's madness. Also, Shakespeare presents the supernatural as unreliable so that it makes Hamlet seem crazier and because he idolises his father he would do anything for him. Overall, I believe Hamlet's rejection to women is due to the actions of his mother and the conventions of a patriarchal society where men are the leader of the house. Hamlet rejects Ophelia as she shows a few similar characteristics to his mother and he rejects women kind as a whole as the people around him have led him to believe all women are evil.
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structed by rapids. The point where lake navigation began was at St. John's, to which the nearest approach, by a hundred-ton schooner, from the St. Lawrence, was Chambly, ten miles below. Flat-boats and long-boats could be dragged up stream, but vessels of any size had to be transported by land; and the engineers found the roadbed too soft in places to bear the weight of a hundred tons. Under Douglas's directions, the planking and frames of two schooners were taken down at Chambly, and carried round by road to St. John's, where they were again put together. At Quebec he found building a new hull, of one hundred and eighty tons. This he took apart nearly to the keel, shipping the frames in thirty long-boats, which the transport captains consented to surrender, together with their carpenters, for service on the Lake. Drafts from the ships of war, and volunteers from the transports, furnished a body of seven hundred seamen for the same employment, — a force to which the Americans could oppose nothing equal, commanded as it was by regular naval officers. The largest vessel was ship-rigged, and had a battery of eighteen 12-pounders; she was called the Inflexible, and was commanded by Lieutenant John Schanck. The two schooners, Maria, Lieutenant Starke, and Carleton, Lieutenant James Richard Dacres, carried respectively fourteen and twelve 6-pounders. These were the backbone of the British flotilla. There were also a radeau, the Thunderer, and a large gondola, the Loyal Convert, both heavily armed; but, being equally heavy of movement, they do not appear to have played any important part. Besides these, when the expedition started, there were twenty gunboats, each carrying one fieldpiece, from 24's to 9-pounders; or, in some cases, howitzers." 1 The radeau had six 24-pounders, six 12's, and two howitzers; “By all these means,” wrote Douglas on July 21st, “our acquiring an absolute dominion over Lake Champlain is not doubted of.” The expectation was perfectly sound. With a working breeze, the Inflexible alone could sweep the Lake clear of all that floated on it. But the element of time remained. From the day of this writing till that on which he saw the Inflexible leave St. John's, October 4th, was over ten weeks; and it was not until the 9th that Carleton was ready to advance with the squadron. By that time the American troops at the head of the Lake had increased to eight or ten thousand. The British land force is reported as thirteen thousand, of which six thousand were in garrison at St. John's and elsewhere.
the gondola, seven 9-pounders. The particulars of armament are from Douglas's letters.
Arnold's last reinforcements reached him at Walcour on the 6th of October. On that day, and in the action of the 11th, he had with him all the American vessels on the Lake, except one schooner and one galley. His force, thus, was two schooners and a sloop, broadside vessels, besides four galleys and eight gondolas, which may be assumed reasonably to have depended on their bow guns; there, at least, was their heaviest fire. Thus reckoned, his flotilla, disposed to the best advantage, could bring into action at one time, two 18's, thirteen 12's, one 9, two 6's, twelve 4's, and two 2-pounders, independent of swivels; total thirty-two guns, out of eightyfour that were mounted in fifteen vessels. To this the British had to oppose, in three broadside vessels, nine 12's and thirteen 6's, and in twenty gunboats, twenty other brass guns, “from twenty-four to nines, some with howitzers;” total forty-two guns. In this statement the radeau and gondola have not been included, because of their unmanageableness. Included as broadside vessels, they would raise the British armament — by three 24's, three 12's, four 9's, and a howitzer – to a total of fifty-three guns. Actually, they could be brought into action only under exceptional circumstances, and are more properly omitted. These minutiae are necessary for the proper appreciation of what Captain Douglas justly called “a momentous event.” It was a strife of pigmies for the prize of a continent, and the leaders are entitled to full credit both for their antecedent energy and for their dispositions in the contest; not least the unhappy man who, having done so much to save his country, afterwards blasted his name by a treason unsurpassed in modern war. Energy and audacity had so far preserved the Lake to the Americans; Arnold determined to have one more try of the chances. He did not know the full force of the enemy, but he expected that “it would be very formidable, if not equal to ours.”" The season, however, was so near its end that a severe check would equal a defeat, and would postpone Carleton's further advance to the next spring. Besides, what was the worth of such a force as the American, such a flotilla, under the guns of Ticonderoga, the Lake being lost? It was eminently a case for taking chances, even if the detachment should be sacrificed, as it was. Arnold's original purpose had been to fight under way; and it was from this point of view that he valued the galleys, because of their mobility. It is uncertain when he first learned of the rig and battery of the Inflerible; but a good look-out was kept, and the British squadron was sighted from Valcour when it quitted the narrows. It may have been seen even earlier; for Carleton had been informed,
1. By American reports. Beatson gives the force sent out, in the spring of 1776, as 13,357. (“Mil. and Nav. Memoirs,” vi. 44.) * Douglas's letters.
1 Douglas thought that the appearance of the Inflexible was a complete surprise; but Arnold had been informed that a third vessel, larger than the schooners, was being set up. With a man of his character, it is impossible to be sure, from his letters to his superior, how much he knew, or what he withheld.
erroneously, that the Americans were near Grand Island, which led him to incline to that side, and so open out Walcour sooner. The British anchored for the night of October 10th, between Grand and Long | Islands. Getting under way next morning, they stood up the Lake with a strong north-east wind, keeping along Grand Island, upon which their attention doubtless was fastened by the intelligence which they had received; but it was a singular negligence thus to run to leeward with a fair wind, without thorough scouting on both hands. The consequence was that the American flotilla was not discovered until Walcour Island, which is from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and eighty feet high throughout its two miles of length, was so far passed that the attack had to be made from the south, – from leeward. When the British were first made out, Arnold's second in command, Waterbury, urged that in view of the enemy's superiority the flotilla should get under way at once, and fight them “on a retreat in the main lake;” the harbour being disadvantageous “to fight a number so much superior, and the enemy being able to surround us on every side, we lying between an island and the main.” Waterbury's advice evidently found its origin in that fruitful source of military errors of design, which reckons the preservation of a force first of objects, making the results of its action secondary. With sounder judgment, Arnold decided to hold on. A retreat before square-rigged sailing vessels having a fair wind, by a heterogeneous force like his own, of unequal speeds and batteries, could result only in disaster. Concerted fire and successful escape were alike improbable; and besides, escape, if feasible, was but throwing up the game. Better trust to a steady, wellordered position, developing the utmost fire. If the enemy discovered him, and came in by the northern entrance, there was a five-foot knoll in mid-channel which might fetch the biggest of them up; if, as proved to be the case, the island should be passed, and the attack should be made from leeward, it probably would be partial and in disorder, as also happened. The correctness of Arnold's decision not to chance a retreat was shown in the retreat of two days later. Valcour is on the west side of the Lake, about three quarters of a mile from the main; but a peninsula projecting from the island at mid-length narrows this interval to a half-mile. From the accounts, it is clear that the American flotilla lay south of this peninsula. Arnold therefore had a reasonable hope that it might be passed undetected. Writing to Gates, the Commander-in-Chief at Ticonderoga, he said: “There is a good harbour, and if the enemy venture up the Lake it will be impossible for them to take advantage of our situation. If we succeed in our attack upon them, it will be impossible for any to escape. If we are worsted, our retreat is open and free. In case of wind, which generally blows fresh at this season, our craft will make good weather, while theirs cannot keep the Lake.” It is apparent from this, written three weeks before the battle, that he then was not expecting a force materially different from his own. Later, he describes his position as being “in a small bay on the west side of the island, as near together as possible, and in such a form that few vessels can attack us at the same time, and those will be exposed to the fire of the whole fleet.” Though he unfortunately gives no details, he evidently had sound tactical ideas. The formation of the anchored vessels is described by the British officers as a half-moon. When the British discovered the enemy, they hauled up for them. Arnold ordered one of his schooners, the Royal Savage, and the four galleys, to get under way; the two other schooners and the eight gondolas remaining at their anchors. The Royal Savage, dropping to leeward, – by bad
1 Now called North Hero.
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« 이전계속 »
structed by rapids. The point where lake navigation began was at St. John's, to which the nearest approach, by a hundred-ton schooner, from the St. Lawrence, was Chambly, ten miles below. Flat-boats and long-boats could be dragged up stream, but vessels of any size had to be transported by land; and the engineers found the roadbed too soft in places to bear the weight of a hundred tons. Under Douglas's directions, the planking and frames of two schooners were taken down at Chambly, and carried round by road to St. John's, where they were again put together. At Quebec he found building a new hull, of one hundred and eighty tons. This he took apart nearly to the keel, shipping the frames in thirty long-boats, which the transport captains consented to surrender, together with their carpenters, for service on the Lake. Drafts from the ships of war, and volunteers from the transports, furnished a body of seven hundred seamen for the same employment, — a force to which the Americans could oppose nothing equal, commanded as it was by regular naval officers. The largest vessel was ship-rigged, and had a battery of eighteen 12-pounders; she was called the Inflexible, and was commanded by Lieutenant John Schanck. The two schooners, Maria, Lieutenant Starke, and Carleton, Lieutenant James Richard Dacres, carried respectively fourteen and twelve 6-pounders. These were the backbone of the British flotilla. There were also a radeau, the Thunderer, and a large gondola, the Loyal Convert, both heavily armed; but, being equally heavy of movement, they do not appear to have played any important part. Besides these, when the expedition started, there were twenty gunboats, each carrying one fieldpiece, from 24's to 9-pounders; or, in some cases, howitzers." 1 The radeau had six 24-pounders, six 12's, and two howitzers; “By all these means,” wrote Douglas on July 21st, “our acquiring an absolute dominion over Lake Champlain is not doubted of.” The expectation was perfectly sound. With a working breeze, the Inflexible alone could sweep the Lake clear of all that floated on it. But the element of time remained. From the day of this writing till that on which he saw the Inflexible leave St. John's, October 4th, was over ten weeks; and it was not until the 9th that Carleton was ready to advance with the squadron. By that time the American troops at the head of the Lake had increased to eight or ten thousand. The British land force is reported as thirteen thousand, of which six thousand were in garrison at St. John's and elsewhere.
the gondola, seven 9-pounders. The particulars of armament are from Douglas's letters.
Arnold's last reinforcements reached him at Walcour on the 6th of October. On that day, and in the action of the 11th, he had with him all the American vessels on the Lake, except one schooner and one galley. His force, thus, was two schooners and a sloop, broadside vessels, besides four galleys and eight gondolas, which may be assumed reasonably to have depended on their bow guns; there, at least, was their heaviest fire. Thus reckoned, his flotilla, disposed to the best advantage, could bring into action at one time, two 18's, thirteen 12's, one 9, two 6's, twelve 4's, and two 2-pounders, independent of swivels; total thirty-two guns, out of eightyfour that were mounted in fifteen vessels. To this the British had to oppose, in three broadside vessels, nine 12's and thirteen 6's, and in twenty gunboats, twenty other brass guns, “from twenty-four to nines, some with howitzers;” total forty-two guns. In this statement the radeau and gondola have not been included, because of their unmanageableness. Included as broadside vessels, they would raise the British armament — by three 24's, three 12's, four 9's, and a howitzer – to a total of fifty-three guns. Actually, they could be brought into action only under exceptional circumstances, and are more properly omitted. These minutiae are necessary for the proper appreciation of what Captain Douglas justly called “a momentous event.” It was a strife of pigmies for the prize of a continent, and the leaders are entitled to full credit both for their antecedent energy and for their dispositions in the contest; not least the unhappy man who, having done so much to save his country, afterwards blasted his name by a treason unsurpassed in modern war. Energy and audacity had so far preserved the Lake to the Americans; Arnold determined to have one more try of the chances. He did not know the full force of the enemy, but he expected that “it would be very formidable, if not equal to ours.”" The season, however, was so near its end that a severe check would equal a defeat, and would postpone Carleton's further advance to the next spring. Besides, what was the worth of such a force as the American, such a flotilla, under the guns of Ticonderoga, the Lake being lost? It was eminently a case for taking chances, even if the detachment should be sacrificed, as it was. Arnold's original purpose had been to fight under way; and it was from this point of view that he valued the galleys, because of their mobility. It is uncertain when he first learned of the rig and battery of the Inflerible; but a good look-out was kept, and the British squadron was sighted from Valcour when it quitted the narrows. It may have been seen even earlier; for Carleton had been informed,
1. By American reports. Beatson gives the force sent out, in the spring of 1776, as 13,357. (“Mil. and Nav. Memoirs,” vi. 44.) * Douglas's letters.
1 Douglas thought that the appearance of the Inflexible was a complete surprise; but Arnold had been informed that a third vessel, larger than the schooners, was being set up. With a man of his character, it is impossible to be sure, from his letters to his superior, how much he knew, or what he withheld.
erroneously, that the Americans were near Grand Island, which led him to incline to that side, and so open out Walcour sooner. The British anchored for the night of October 10th, between Grand and Long | Islands. Getting under way next morning, they stood up the Lake with a strong north-east wind, keeping along Grand Island, upon which their attention doubtless was fastened by the intelligence which they had received; but it was a singular negligence thus to run to leeward with a fair wind, without thorough scouting on both hands. The consequence was that the American flotilla was not discovered until Walcour Island, which is from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and eighty feet high throughout its two miles of length, was so far passed that the attack had to be made from the south, – from leeward. When the British were first made out, Arnold's second in command, Waterbury, urged that in view of the enemy's superiority the flotilla should get under way at once, and fight them “on a retreat in the main lake;” the harbour being disadvantageous “to fight a number so much superior, and the enemy being able to surround us on every side, we lying between an island and the main.” Waterbury's advice evidently found its origin in that fruitful source of military errors of design, which reckons the preservation of a force first of objects, making the results of its action secondary. With sounder judgment, Arnold decided to hold on. A retreat before square-rigged sailing vessels having a fair wind, by a heterogeneous force like his own, of unequal speeds and batteries, could result only in disaster. Concerted fire and successful escape were alike improbable; and besides, escape, if feasible, was but throwing up the game. Better trust to a steady, wellordered position, developing the utmost fire. If the enemy discovered him, and came in by the northern entrance, there was a five-foot knoll in mid-channel which might fetch the biggest of them up; if, as proved to be the case, the island should be passed, and the attack should be made from leeward, it probably would be partial and in disorder, as also happened. The correctness of Arnold's decision not to chance a retreat was shown in the retreat of two days later. Valcour is on the west side of the Lake, about three quarters of a mile from the main; but a peninsula projecting from the island at mid-length narrows this interval to a half-mile. From the accounts, it is clear that the American flotilla lay south of this peninsula. Arnold therefore had a reasonable hope that it might be passed undetected. Writing to Gates, the Commander-in-Chief at Ticonderoga, he said: “There is a good harbour, and if the enemy venture up the Lake it will be impossible for them to take advantage of our situation. If we succeed in our attack upon them, it will be impossible for any to escape. If we are worsted, our retreat is open and free. In case of wind, which generally blows fresh at this season, our craft will make good weather, while theirs cannot keep the Lake.” It is apparent from this, written three weeks before the battle, that he then was not expecting a force materially different from his own. Later, he describes his position as being “in a small bay on the west side of the island, as near together as possible, and in such a form that few vessels can attack us at the same time, and those will be exposed to the fire of the whole fleet.” Though he unfortunately gives no details, he evidently had sound tactical ideas. The formation of the anchored vessels is described by the British officers as a half-moon. When the British discovered the enemy, they hauled up for them. Arnold ordered one of his schooners, the Royal Savage, and the four galleys, to get under way; the two other schooners and the eight gondolas remaining at their anchors. The Royal Savage, dropping to leeward, – by bad
1 Now called North Hero.
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In 1662 three English Quakers arrived in Dover, N.H. It didn’t take long before the Puritan townspeople spoke up about the newcomers. They petitioned Richard Waldron, the magistrate at Dover, “humbly craving relief against the spreading and the wicked errors of the Quakers among them.” Dover was frontier country and Waldron was the vice president of the New Hampshire colony and the representative to the Massachusetts General Court, where Quaker persecution was a hotly debated issue.
An ornery Puritan who came from England to New Hampshire in 1635, Waldron came from wealth and he expanded it greatly, acquiring lands in Dover where he constructed mills on the Cochecho River and ran an active trading post with the local Pennacook Indians, with whom he maintained largely friendly relations.
The Quakers, meanwhile, were proving themselves a thorn in the side of New England’s Puritans. They had begun arriving in the colonies in 1656, and agitated for religious freedom. The General Court in Massachusetts repeatedly voted to ban the Quakers and they were punished by an assortment of methods, including whipping and branding.
But the Quakers persisted in demanding their rights. Several chose to become martyrs rather than accept offers of leniency, unless the state authorities would rescind the bans on Quakerism. In 1660, Massachusetts had even executed four Quakers who refused to renounce their faith. This group included Mary Dyer, a martyr who knew her execution would prove controversial for the political leaders of Massachusetts.
In 1662, Waldron had the Dover Quakers – Ann Coleman, Mary Tompkins and Alice Ambrose – arrested as vagabonds. He ordered that they be tied to the back of a cart and walked the 60-plus miles to Boston. Waldron ordered that at each town along the way they were to be stripped and whipped by the local constable. After carrying out the sentence in Dover, the cart was dispatched to Hampton. There, the constable also carried out the punishment.
The next stop along the punishment trail was Salisbury, Mass. Here, the whippings stopped.
Robert Pike was a constable, militia leader and deputy to the Massachusetts General Court for Salisbury. Though the General Court had outlawed Quakerism, the decision was far from unanimous. Pike and others supported religious freedom, and he and others in Salisbury were outraged at the order to whip the women.
Pike and Walter Barefoot, a political rival to Waldron in New Hampshire, treated the three Quakers’ wounds and helped them escape to Maine. The Quakers correctly believed that the persecution was backfiring. Each incident brought greater attention to their struggle and fresh converts to their faith.
In 1661, the King of England had ordered the colonies to stop executing and imprisoning Quakers. Rather, they were to be sent to England. This was probably the fate Waldron had in mind for the three women he sent to Boston.
Instead, what happened was the three Quakers returned quietly to Dover and established a church there. Fully one third of Dover’s population would eventually convert to Quakerism. Active persecution of the Quakers died out around 1670.
Waldron, in New Hampshire, would meet a horrific fate. Following King Philip’s War in 1678, a group of Indian fighters had fled to New Hampshire. Waldron managed to trick the Indians into attending a “war game.” As soon as they had discharged their muskets, he seized the Indians and sent them to Boston. They were banished into slavery for their part in the war.
The result was that many New Hampshire Indians viewed Waldron with contempt. In 1689 a band of Indians killed him. Waldron was 80.
Robert Pike, meanwhile, had continued his protests for greater religious tolerance. In 1692, as the Salem witch hysteria was gaining momentum, Pike authored a letter to one of the judges in the witch trials. Pike criticized the way the trials were conducted. While he did not dispute whether witchcraft was real, he argued that the Salem trials were not sound.
Pike’s letter made him the first of many who began attacking the witch trials, eventually bringing them to an end. He died in 1706.
Pike’s actions in the Quaker incident were immortalized by John Greenleaf Whittier. In the poem, How the Women Went from Dover, the word of justice Pike are recorded:
Cut loose these poor ones and let them go;
Come what will of it, all men shall know
No warrant is good, though backed by the Crown,
For whipping women in Salisbury town!
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In 1662 three English Quakers arrived in Dover, N.H. It didn’t take long before the Puritan townspeople spoke up about the newcomers. They petitioned Richard Waldron, the magistrate at Dover, “humbly craving relief against the spreading and the wicked errors of the Quakers among them.” Dover was frontier country and Waldron was the vice president of the New Hampshire colony and the representative to the Massachusetts General Court, where Quaker persecution was a hotly debated issue.
An ornery Puritan who came from England to New Hampshire in 1635, Waldron came from wealth and he expanded it greatly, acquiring lands in Dover where he constructed mills on the Cochecho River and ran an active trading post with the local Pennacook Indians, with whom he maintained largely friendly relations.
The Quakers, meanwhile, were proving themselves a thorn in the side of New England’s Puritans. They had begun arriving in the colonies in 1656, and agitated for religious freedom. The General Court in Massachusetts repeatedly voted to ban the Quakers and they were punished by an assortment of methods, including whipping and branding.
But the Quakers persisted in demanding their rights. Several chose to become martyrs rather than accept offers of leniency, unless the state authorities would rescind the bans on Quakerism. In 1660, Massachusetts had even executed four Quakers who refused to renounce their faith. This group included Mary Dyer, a martyr who knew her execution would prove controversial for the political leaders of Massachusetts.
In 1662, Waldron had the Dover Quakers – Ann Coleman, Mary Tompkins and Alice Ambrose – arrested as vagabonds. He ordered that they be tied to the back of a cart and walked the 60-plus miles to Boston. Waldron ordered that at each town along the way they were to be stripped and whipped by the local constable. After carrying out the sentence in Dover, the cart was dispatched to Hampton. There, the constable also carried out the punishment.
The next stop along the punishment trail was Salisbury, Mass. Here, the whippings stopped.
Robert Pike was a constable, militia leader and deputy to the Massachusetts General Court for Salisbury. Though the General Court had outlawed Quakerism, the decision was far from unanimous. Pike and others supported religious freedom, and he and others in Salisbury were outraged at the order to whip the women.
Pike and Walter Barefoot, a political rival to Waldron in New Hampshire, treated the three Quakers’ wounds and helped them escape to Maine. The Quakers correctly believed that the persecution was backfiring. Each incident brought greater attention to their struggle and fresh converts to their faith.
In 1661, the King of England had ordered the colonies to stop executing and imprisoning Quakers. Rather, they were to be sent to England. This was probably the fate Waldron had in mind for the three women he sent to Boston.
Instead, what happened was the three Quakers returned quietly to Dover and established a church there. Fully one third of Dover’s population would eventually convert to Quakerism. Active persecution of the Quakers died out around 1670.
Waldron, in New Hampshire, would meet a horrific fate. Following King Philip’s War in 1678, a group of Indian fighters had fled to New Hampshire. Waldron managed to trick the Indians into attending a “war game.” As soon as they had discharged their muskets, he seized the Indians and sent them to Boston. They were banished into slavery for their part in the war.
The result was that many New Hampshire Indians viewed Waldron with contempt. In 1689 a band of Indians killed him. Waldron was 80.
Robert Pike, meanwhile, had continued his protests for greater religious tolerance. In 1692, as the Salem witch hysteria was gaining momentum, Pike authored a letter to one of the judges in the witch trials. Pike criticized the way the trials were conducted. While he did not dispute whether witchcraft was real, he argued that the Salem trials were not sound.
Pike’s letter made him the first of many who began attacking the witch trials, eventually bringing them to an end. He died in 1706.
Pike’s actions in the Quaker incident were immortalized by John Greenleaf Whittier. In the poem, How the Women Went from Dover, the word of justice Pike are recorded:
Cut loose these poor ones and let them go;
Come what will of it, all men shall know
No warrant is good, though backed by the Crown,
For whipping women in Salisbury town!
| 973
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Ancient Egyptians of all classes lived lives of duty; from the king, who looked after his people, to noble servants who assisted king in this job, and to the everyday people and slaves. This life of duty would continue after death, for those blessed with a gift of land from the Sun god Re, were supposed to keep the land productive to provide for their households and servants. This meant work!
But after a long laborious life, people preferred an eternal life of relaxation, so they opted for different solution – marshalling servants and helpers, just as they did in their lives.
Funerary figurines, known as shabti, shawabti, and ushabti, were made for this very purpose – to enter a life of eternal servitude and ‘answer’ when called to work.
The figurines are small, usually 10 to 30 cm high. They were most frequently made from faience, though other materials were also used, including wax, clay, wood, stone, terracotta, and sometimes glass or bronze. These little minions lined the floors of tombs around the sarcophagus, to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. They were expected to perform various duties, but their primary job was in agriculture, to keep the fields fertile and productive.
The figurines were originally shaped in the likeness of the deceased ‘master’, but eventually made as servants, and were inscribed with the owner’s name and spells. This writing had the magical power that brought the figurines to life and compelled them to work solely on behalf of their owners.
Some scholars believe that the term ushabti meant ‘follower’ or ‘answerer’, as the figurine ‘answered’ for its master and performed all the daily chores required. The three term variants may imply different roles and times. For example shabti were most typical in the West Bank and the Necropolis of Thebes. But shawabti may have been associated specifically with Deir el Medina – an artisan village in the Valley of Kings during the New Kingdom period (c. 1550–1080 BC).
These figurines evolved in style throughout the ages, starting from the shabti and shawabti from the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC) to the 18th Dynasty (c. 1570-1293 BC). As time went by, they changed from the original depiction of craftsmen, women, and labourer, to the mummiform, in which they were bandaged and placed in mini coffins. Later they were depicted dressed in everyday garb, carrying tools of the trade such as baskets and hoes.
By the 21st Dynasty (c. 1070-945 BC), the mummiform was back in vogue, though the ushabti were being mass-produced in moulds with minimal details and an overall lower quality. They ceased to be used from the Ptolemaic period (c. 305 BC–30 BC) which heralds the final demise of ancient Egyptian civilisation.
BC (or BCE) – means Before Common Era, and indicates the years counted back from the first year of the Western Calendar. For example, in 30 BC Rome conquered Egypt and Cleopatra took her own life.
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] | 11
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Ancient Egyptians of all classes lived lives of duty; from the king, who looked after his people, to noble servants who assisted king in this job, and to the everyday people and slaves. This life of duty would continue after death, for those blessed with a gift of land from the Sun god Re, were supposed to keep the land productive to provide for their households and servants. This meant work!
But after a long laborious life, people preferred an eternal life of relaxation, so they opted for different solution – marshalling servants and helpers, just as they did in their lives.
Funerary figurines, known as shabti, shawabti, and ushabti, were made for this very purpose – to enter a life of eternal servitude and ‘answer’ when called to work.
The figurines are small, usually 10 to 30 cm high. They were most frequently made from faience, though other materials were also used, including wax, clay, wood, stone, terracotta, and sometimes glass or bronze. These little minions lined the floors of tombs around the sarcophagus, to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. They were expected to perform various duties, but their primary job was in agriculture, to keep the fields fertile and productive.
The figurines were originally shaped in the likeness of the deceased ‘master’, but eventually made as servants, and were inscribed with the owner’s name and spells. This writing had the magical power that brought the figurines to life and compelled them to work solely on behalf of their owners.
Some scholars believe that the term ushabti meant ‘follower’ or ‘answerer’, as the figurine ‘answered’ for its master and performed all the daily chores required. The three term variants may imply different roles and times. For example shabti were most typical in the West Bank and the Necropolis of Thebes. But shawabti may have been associated specifically with Deir el Medina – an artisan village in the Valley of Kings during the New Kingdom period (c. 1550–1080 BC).
These figurines evolved in style throughout the ages, starting from the shabti and shawabti from the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC) to the 18th Dynasty (c. 1570-1293 BC). As time went by, they changed from the original depiction of craftsmen, women, and labourer, to the mummiform, in which they were bandaged and placed in mini coffins. Later they were depicted dressed in everyday garb, carrying tools of the trade such as baskets and hoes.
By the 21st Dynasty (c. 1070-945 BC), the mummiform was back in vogue, though the ushabti were being mass-produced in moulds with minimal details and an overall lower quality. They ceased to be used from the Ptolemaic period (c. 305 BC–30 BC) which heralds the final demise of ancient Egyptian civilisation.
BC (or BCE) – means Before Common Era, and indicates the years counted back from the first year of the Western Calendar. For example, in 30 BC Rome conquered Egypt and Cleopatra took her own life.
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In the 1500's Martin Luther and others were involved in an important movement, the Protestant Reformation, which sought to bring the Church back to the truths that are taught in the Bible.
How did the Church get so far away from what the Bible teaches? Consider the following:
On the day of Pentecost the Church was born (see Chapter 9)! When the Church first began, it was under the Headship of Christ and it was built upon a very solid foundation:
As years passed, the Church began to move away from its firm foundation. People began to listen to the words of men, instead of listening only to Godís Word, the Bible. Instead of following the Leadership and Headship of Christ, they began to follow human religious leaders. Some people claimed to be Christians who were not Christians at all (2 Timothy 2:19). Some were baptized who were not even saved! As a result, there was a terrible mixture in the Church. That which was false and worldly was mixed in with that which was true and godly:
As time went on, things continued to get worse and worse. Men soon turned away their ears from the _____________ (2 Timothy 4:4) and they began to listen to false teaching or doctrines of demons (1 Timothy 4:1). Religious people did not want to believe the Bible and stand fully upon it. These religious people did not want God to be their Head or their King or their Leader (see Chapter 6). They wanted to be ruled and led by men (sinful men!). Thus the Church continued to move away from Christ and the Bible, and this resulted in a false religious system based on man's thoughts and subject to man's leadership. During this time true born again believers were few and far between:
Men refused to let the light shine from Godís Word (2 Peter 1:19), and this is why the Dark Ages (476-1000 A.D.) were so dark! A few believers here and there let their lights shine, but in general these were centuries of great spiritual darkness and ignorance.
Would God let this darkness continue? In the 16th century (almost 500 years ago) the Lord worked in the heart of a German man by the name of Martin Luther. God taught this man from His Word, and Luther began to see that what the Bible taught was very different from what the Roman Catholic Church taught.
One area where Luther strongly disagreed with the Catholic Church concerned indulgences. The Catholic Church put a great emphasis on sin and its punishment in purgatory and hell. Purgatory, according to the Roman Catholic Church, is a place where those who are to enter heaven are assigned, usually for a long period of time. In purgatory the person is cleansed by fire before he is fit to enter heaven (this would involve pain and suffering). The more faithfully the person would follow his Catholic religion in this life, the shorter would be his time of suffering in purgatory. Some of the things a person could do to shorten his time of suffering in purgatory would be to pray certain prayers, to fast (go without meals), to give money to the poor, to go on a pilgrimage to some shrine, etc.
Remember, the Bible does not teach these things about purgatory. Purgatory is not even mentioned in the Bible. Believers are completely cleansed in this life by the precious blood of Christ which He shed when He died as our Substitute on Calvary's cross. We can rest in His finished work and believe that He did it all! We cannot do anything to purge (cleanse) our sins, but when Christ died on the cross He made it possible for all of our sins to be completely P________________ (see Hebrews 1:3).
Back to our subject of indulgences: The Catholic Church devised a plan by which they could make money and also make people think that they were going to suffer less in purgatory. People could buy a ticket (called an "indulgence") which would allow them to suffer less time in purgatory. Not only could a person buy indulgences for himself, but he could also buy indulgences for his loved ones (relatives and friends) who had died and passed into purgatory. In this way they could shorten the time these loved ones would otherwise have to spend in purgatory, the place of cleansing and suffering. As you can imagine, this was a huge money making program for the Catholic Church.
Some people preferred to buy indulgences rather than to constantly say prayers or do other good deeds. They thought it was easier to pay money than to spend time in prayer. There was one Catholic friar by the name of Tetzel who loved to sell indulgences. He was like a high-pressure salesman. He wanted to sell as many indulgences as he could. In his sales talk he would say things like this: "The moment you hear your money drop in the box, the soul of your mother will jump out of purgatory." The whole idea of indulgences and the wicked salesman techniques of Tetzel greatly angered Martin Luther. He knew these things did not please God.
Luther decided to write down why the selling of indulgences was wrong. He took his pen and wrote down 95 theses (statements) and then he nailed this paper to the church door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg Germany. The church door was like a bulletin board. It was where people in the town would post announcements and news. By doing this, Luther made his views about indulgences known to the public. This act of Luther was not the Reformation, but it was the first in a series of acts which were to lead up to the Reformation.
[For some of this material I am indebted to B. K. Kuiper's The Church in History, pages 158-163.]
Luther's stand for the truth and his faith in the Word of God laid the foundation for a new movement which later would be known as the Protestant Reformation (he was protesting and speaking out against the religious system of his day and seeking to reform or change the church of his day by bringing it back to Christ and the Bible):
Martin Luther and others who followed him began to recover and rediscover some of the basic truths of the Bible which had been lost by the majority of people for many years and for many centuries.
The three great truths which came to light during the time of the Reformation are as follows:
Where can a person go to learn about the Lord and about spiritual things? How can a person find out about life and death, heaven and hell? How can a person discover how to be saved and how to have eternal life? Where can a person find answers about these things? Whom should he listen to? Whom should he believe? Where can he get his answers?
What books should a person read to find the answers to lifeís most important questions? Should a person get his answers from a Pastor or a Priest? Does the Pope have all the answers? Does the Roman Catholic Church have the answers? Does the Mormon Church? Does the Lutheran Church? Does any church? Should I trust tradition (that which men have believed and taught and practiced for years)?
What is my authority when it comes to spiritual things? Do you know what Martin Lutherís answer was? His authority was this: the Bible, the whole Bible and nothing but the Bible!
His authority was not in any man. His authority was God. The answers to all of lifeís important questions are found in the Bible, which is Godís holy Word. The reformation was a back to the Bible movement! There is no better way to come out of the darkness than to go back to the Bible! The constant cry of Martin Luther and others like him was this: "What S___________ THE S________________________ ?" (Romans 4:3). The reformers believed in the absolute and supreme authority of the Bible.
What is your authority? Where do you go to find the answers to lifeís most basic questions? Where do you go to find out how to be saved and go to heaven? Is God your Authority, or are sinful and fallible (capable of being wrong and mistaken) men your authority? Is your faith in what men have said or is your faith in what God has said?
How can a person be saved? How can a person be right with God for all eternity? How can a person go to heaven and escape the judgment and damnation of an eternal hell?
For years the Catholic religious system had taught that salvation was by works. They said that man must earn his salvation by doing something--by observing the sacraments, by baptism, by going to the mass, by keeping the law, by saying certain prayers, by going through a religious ritual, by trying to live a good life, etc. They thought that by their works they could somehow earn Godís favor and blessing and He would then let them enter His heaven. If they failed to get into heaven right away, then they believed that good works and buying indulgences would help them to spend less time suffering in purgatory.
Martin Luther and the other reformers realized that salvation is not by works, but it is by faith and faith alone. "Therefore, being justified by _______________" (Romans 5:1). "Not by ___________ of righteousness which we have done, but according to His ____________ He saved us" (Titus 3:5). A person is justified and saved because he puts his faith in a Person, the Lord Jesus Christ. He is the only One who can save sinners (1 Timothy 1:15; Hebrews 7:25).
Are you trusting in your own works and good deeds? Do you think that God is going to let you into His heaven because you have tried to be good? Could you ever be good enough to satisfy a holy and righteous God? We are not saved by what we do; we are saved by what Christ has already done on the cross. Read Ephesians 2:8-9 which tells how a person is really saved.
For centuries the religious system had taught that only a select group of men (called "priests") could have direct access to God. The common ordinary believer could not go directly to God; he had to go through a priest. He could not confess his sins to God directly, but instead he had to go to a priest and make "confession." He could not understand his Bible alone; he had to depend upon a priest for the correct interpretation.
Martin Luther and the other reformers realized that according to the Bible every believer is a priest (see 1 Peter 2:9 and Revelation 1:6). Every believer can go directly to God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible says: "For there is one God, and one mediator between God and man" (1 Timothy 2:5). A mediator is a "go between." A mediator goes between two people. In this case, the Mediator goes between God and man. Who is this one Mediator (1 Timothy 2:5)? __________________________
What a wonderful truth! Every believer can go directly to God in prayer! Every believer can confess his sins directly to God, because He is the one we have sinned against (1 John 1:9)! Every believer can read and study the Bible for Himself, trusting God to be his teacher and his interpreter.
Are you a priest? Do you have direct access to the living God? Do you have a saving relationship with Christ so that you are able to come to the Father (John 14:6)?
Are you still in the dark, or has God revealed these three great truths to you?
"The entrance of thy words giveth light; it giveth understanding unto the simple" (Psalm 119:130).
Back to GREAT EVENTS
Back to SUNDAY SCHOOL MATERIALS & HELPFUL BIBLE STUDIES
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] | 5
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In the 1500's Martin Luther and others were involved in an important movement, the Protestant Reformation, which sought to bring the Church back to the truths that are taught in the Bible.
How did the Church get so far away from what the Bible teaches? Consider the following:
On the day of Pentecost the Church was born (see Chapter 9)! When the Church first began, it was under the Headship of Christ and it was built upon a very solid foundation:
As years passed, the Church began to move away from its firm foundation. People began to listen to the words of men, instead of listening only to Godís Word, the Bible. Instead of following the Leadership and Headship of Christ, they began to follow human religious leaders. Some people claimed to be Christians who were not Christians at all (2 Timothy 2:19). Some were baptized who were not even saved! As a result, there was a terrible mixture in the Church. That which was false and worldly was mixed in with that which was true and godly:
As time went on, things continued to get worse and worse. Men soon turned away their ears from the _____________ (2 Timothy 4:4) and they began to listen to false teaching or doctrines of demons (1 Timothy 4:1). Religious people did not want to believe the Bible and stand fully upon it. These religious people did not want God to be their Head or their King or their Leader (see Chapter 6). They wanted to be ruled and led by men (sinful men!). Thus the Church continued to move away from Christ and the Bible, and this resulted in a false religious system based on man's thoughts and subject to man's leadership. During this time true born again believers were few and far between:
Men refused to let the light shine from Godís Word (2 Peter 1:19), and this is why the Dark Ages (476-1000 A.D.) were so dark! A few believers here and there let their lights shine, but in general these were centuries of great spiritual darkness and ignorance.
Would God let this darkness continue? In the 16th century (almost 500 years ago) the Lord worked in the heart of a German man by the name of Martin Luther. God taught this man from His Word, and Luther began to see that what the Bible taught was very different from what the Roman Catholic Church taught.
One area where Luther strongly disagreed with the Catholic Church concerned indulgences. The Catholic Church put a great emphasis on sin and its punishment in purgatory and hell. Purgatory, according to the Roman Catholic Church, is a place where those who are to enter heaven are assigned, usually for a long period of time. In purgatory the person is cleansed by fire before he is fit to enter heaven (this would involve pain and suffering). The more faithfully the person would follow his Catholic religion in this life, the shorter would be his time of suffering in purgatory. Some of the things a person could do to shorten his time of suffering in purgatory would be to pray certain prayers, to fast (go without meals), to give money to the poor, to go on a pilgrimage to some shrine, etc.
Remember, the Bible does not teach these things about purgatory. Purgatory is not even mentioned in the Bible. Believers are completely cleansed in this life by the precious blood of Christ which He shed when He died as our Substitute on Calvary's cross. We can rest in His finished work and believe that He did it all! We cannot do anything to purge (cleanse) our sins, but when Christ died on the cross He made it possible for all of our sins to be completely P________________ (see Hebrews 1:3).
Back to our subject of indulgences: The Catholic Church devised a plan by which they could make money and also make people think that they were going to suffer less in purgatory. People could buy a ticket (called an "indulgence") which would allow them to suffer less time in purgatory. Not only could a person buy indulgences for himself, but he could also buy indulgences for his loved ones (relatives and friends) who had died and passed into purgatory. In this way they could shorten the time these loved ones would otherwise have to spend in purgatory, the place of cleansing and suffering. As you can imagine, this was a huge money making program for the Catholic Church.
Some people preferred to buy indulgences rather than to constantly say prayers or do other good deeds. They thought it was easier to pay money than to spend time in prayer. There was one Catholic friar by the name of Tetzel who loved to sell indulgences. He was like a high-pressure salesman. He wanted to sell as many indulgences as he could. In his sales talk he would say things like this: "The moment you hear your money drop in the box, the soul of your mother will jump out of purgatory." The whole idea of indulgences and the wicked salesman techniques of Tetzel greatly angered Martin Luther. He knew these things did not please God.
Luther decided to write down why the selling of indulgences was wrong. He took his pen and wrote down 95 theses (statements) and then he nailed this paper to the church door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg Germany. The church door was like a bulletin board. It was where people in the town would post announcements and news. By doing this, Luther made his views about indulgences known to the public. This act of Luther was not the Reformation, but it was the first in a series of acts which were to lead up to the Reformation.
[For some of this material I am indebted to B. K. Kuiper's The Church in History, pages 158-163.]
Luther's stand for the truth and his faith in the Word of God laid the foundation for a new movement which later would be known as the Protestant Reformation (he was protesting and speaking out against the religious system of his day and seeking to reform or change the church of his day by bringing it back to Christ and the Bible):
Martin Luther and others who followed him began to recover and rediscover some of the basic truths of the Bible which had been lost by the majority of people for many years and for many centuries.
The three great truths which came to light during the time of the Reformation are as follows:
Where can a person go to learn about the Lord and about spiritual things? How can a person find out about life and death, heaven and hell? How can a person discover how to be saved and how to have eternal life? Where can a person find answers about these things? Whom should he listen to? Whom should he believe? Where can he get his answers?
What books should a person read to find the answers to lifeís most important questions? Should a person get his answers from a Pastor or a Priest? Does the Pope have all the answers? Does the Roman Catholic Church have the answers? Does the Mormon Church? Does the Lutheran Church? Does any church? Should I trust tradition (that which men have believed and taught and practiced for years)?
What is my authority when it comes to spiritual things? Do you know what Martin Lutherís answer was? His authority was this: the Bible, the whole Bible and nothing but the Bible!
His authority was not in any man. His authority was God. The answers to all of lifeís important questions are found in the Bible, which is Godís holy Word. The reformation was a back to the Bible movement! There is no better way to come out of the darkness than to go back to the Bible! The constant cry of Martin Luther and others like him was this: "What S___________ THE S________________________ ?" (Romans 4:3). The reformers believed in the absolute and supreme authority of the Bible.
What is your authority? Where do you go to find the answers to lifeís most basic questions? Where do you go to find out how to be saved and go to heaven? Is God your Authority, or are sinful and fallible (capable of being wrong and mistaken) men your authority? Is your faith in what men have said or is your faith in what God has said?
How can a person be saved? How can a person be right with God for all eternity? How can a person go to heaven and escape the judgment and damnation of an eternal hell?
For years the Catholic religious system had taught that salvation was by works. They said that man must earn his salvation by doing something--by observing the sacraments, by baptism, by going to the mass, by keeping the law, by saying certain prayers, by going through a religious ritual, by trying to live a good life, etc. They thought that by their works they could somehow earn Godís favor and blessing and He would then let them enter His heaven. If they failed to get into heaven right away, then they believed that good works and buying indulgences would help them to spend less time suffering in purgatory.
Martin Luther and the other reformers realized that salvation is not by works, but it is by faith and faith alone. "Therefore, being justified by _______________" (Romans 5:1). "Not by ___________ of righteousness which we have done, but according to His ____________ He saved us" (Titus 3:5). A person is justified and saved because he puts his faith in a Person, the Lord Jesus Christ. He is the only One who can save sinners (1 Timothy 1:15; Hebrews 7:25).
Are you trusting in your own works and good deeds? Do you think that God is going to let you into His heaven because you have tried to be good? Could you ever be good enough to satisfy a holy and righteous God? We are not saved by what we do; we are saved by what Christ has already done on the cross. Read Ephesians 2:8-9 which tells how a person is really saved.
For centuries the religious system had taught that only a select group of men (called "priests") could have direct access to God. The common ordinary believer could not go directly to God; he had to go through a priest. He could not confess his sins to God directly, but instead he had to go to a priest and make "confession." He could not understand his Bible alone; he had to depend upon a priest for the correct interpretation.
Martin Luther and the other reformers realized that according to the Bible every believer is a priest (see 1 Peter 2:9 and Revelation 1:6). Every believer can go directly to God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible says: "For there is one God, and one mediator between God and man" (1 Timothy 2:5). A mediator is a "go between." A mediator goes between two people. In this case, the Mediator goes between God and man. Who is this one Mediator (1 Timothy 2:5)? __________________________
What a wonderful truth! Every believer can go directly to God in prayer! Every believer can confess his sins directly to God, because He is the one we have sinned against (1 John 1:9)! Every believer can read and study the Bible for Himself, trusting God to be his teacher and his interpreter.
Are you a priest? Do you have direct access to the living God? Do you have a saving relationship with Christ so that you are able to come to the Father (John 14:6)?
Are you still in the dark, or has God revealed these three great truths to you?
"The entrance of thy words giveth light; it giveth understanding unto the simple" (Psalm 119:130).
Back to GREAT EVENTS
Back to SUNDAY SCHOOL MATERIALS & HELPFUL BIBLE STUDIES
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P S2 Tax paid P2 S1
D Q2 Q1 Q
This graph above shows what difference indirect taxes would create. By using indirect taxes, the supply curve is most likely to shift to the left which is from S1, to S2, as there will be a smaller decrease in quantity but an increase in price. In the gap between S1 and S2 there is a gap which shows how much tax is paid. The tax paid is what causes the price to go up, leading to the quantity going down. Therefore the quantity bought would be from Q2 and the price would be from P2. The larger the gap between S1 and S2, the higher the price of the indirect tax. Rules and regulations is also a good method which can affect the consumption of demerit good. This is because it generates limits which apply to the good. These limitations can sometimes be hard to control. For example, there can be underage tobacco buyers who buy them secretly; this is something very difficult to control. Rules can be added to this to help. If there was a law put in place saying underage buyers of tobacco will be fined a big amount if caught then many people would stop buying as they would be scared to face the consequences. This is a way in which the method will be very effective as it lowers the consumption of the demerit good. In this graph you can see that there is a sold line which shows the limited amount of quantity there is for a good. For example, there would be a limited amount for what age people can buy cigarettes and/or how many can be bought. When this gets put in to place, the demand curve would shift upwards, causing the price to become higher. This is a good way in causing the demerit goods to be consumed less as the quantity would be fixed.
In conclusion I think that there are many ways in which demerit goods consumption can be reduced but it can be a very difficult job. Demerit goods will never be goods that consumers would stop consuming such as the tobacco example. Finally, out of both of the methods I have explained I think indirect tax would be the best way to decrease the consumption of the demerit good. This is because it is more likely to have a bigger and better affect than the rules and regulation due to the price becoming more expensive than before. If the government uses indirect taxes everyone will have to pay, for goods like tobacco or things that are even worse. On the other hand, tobacco is very addictive causing people not to care whether the price has changed for the good or for the bad. The advantage of using an indirect tax to reduce consumption of demerit goods is that everyone pays them. Whether they are constant tobacco buyers or not. This could put off the new comers of smoking. As for rules and regulations, it is a harder way to keep track of the consumption and not many people would get caught if simple rules were put in. it would also be really expensive to hire police and guards up 24/7 in each road checking if the rules are being followed.
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|
P S2 Tax paid P2 S1
D Q2 Q1 Q
This graph above shows what difference indirect taxes would create. By using indirect taxes, the supply curve is most likely to shift to the left which is from S1, to S2, as there will be a smaller decrease in quantity but an increase in price. In the gap between S1 and S2 there is a gap which shows how much tax is paid. The tax paid is what causes the price to go up, leading to the quantity going down. Therefore the quantity bought would be from Q2 and the price would be from P2. The larger the gap between S1 and S2, the higher the price of the indirect tax. Rules and regulations is also a good method which can affect the consumption of demerit good. This is because it generates limits which apply to the good. These limitations can sometimes be hard to control. For example, there can be underage tobacco buyers who buy them secretly; this is something very difficult to control. Rules can be added to this to help. If there was a law put in place saying underage buyers of tobacco will be fined a big amount if caught then many people would stop buying as they would be scared to face the consequences. This is a way in which the method will be very effective as it lowers the consumption of the demerit good. In this graph you can see that there is a sold line which shows the limited amount of quantity there is for a good. For example, there would be a limited amount for what age people can buy cigarettes and/or how many can be bought. When this gets put in to place, the demand curve would shift upwards, causing the price to become higher. This is a good way in causing the demerit goods to be consumed less as the quantity would be fixed.
In conclusion I think that there are many ways in which demerit goods consumption can be reduced but it can be a very difficult job. Demerit goods will never be goods that consumers would stop consuming such as the tobacco example. Finally, out of both of the methods I have explained I think indirect tax would be the best way to decrease the consumption of the demerit good. This is because it is more likely to have a bigger and better affect than the rules and regulation due to the price becoming more expensive than before. If the government uses indirect taxes everyone will have to pay, for goods like tobacco or things that are even worse. On the other hand, tobacco is very addictive causing people not to care whether the price has changed for the good or for the bad. The advantage of using an indirect tax to reduce consumption of demerit goods is that everyone pays them. Whether they are constant tobacco buyers or not. This could put off the new comers of smoking. As for rules and regulations, it is a harder way to keep track of the consumption and not many people would get caught if simple rules were put in. it would also be really expensive to hire police and guards up 24/7 in each road checking if the rules are being followed.
| 630
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Captain Matthew Flinders
The remains of the first British explorer to circumnavigate Australia are to be reburied in his home village after being discovered near a busy London railway station.
The grave of Captain Matthew Flinders, who popularised Australia’s name, was discovered in January in a built-over former burial ground behind Euston terminus.
The site was being excavated for the HS2 high speed rail project, which will eventually link London with Birmingham and Manchester.
Flinders died aged 40 on July 19, 1814 — the day after the publication of “A Voyage to Terra Australis”, which described his 1802-1803 circumnavigation of Australia and proved that it was a continent.
With an estimated 40,000 remains at the former Saint James’s Church burial ground, archaeologists were not sure they were going to find Flinders, whose resting place had been subject to much speculation.
However, the ornate lead nameplate on his coffin was well-preserved, enabling archaeologists to identify the grave.
Flinders will be reburied in the parish church of Saint Mary and The Holy Rood in Donington, his home village in Lincolnshire, eastern England.
Flinders’ relatives and the local community had asked for his remains to be reinterred where he grew up before joining the Royal Navy.
“It is fitting that the last voyage of Captain Matthew Flinders will be back to the village of Donington,” said Helen Wass, HS2’s head of heritage.
“This local boy from Donington put Australia on the map due to his tenacity and expertise as a navigator and explorer.
“The Flinders name is synonymous with exploration, science and discovery, and HS2, through its archaeology programme, will ensure that we maximise the opportunities for further academic and scientific study.”
Archaeologists have studied his skeleton.
The Euston excavation was one of Britain’s largest ever digs, going down as deep as eight metres (26 feet), with the site protected from the elements under an 11,000 square-metre roof.
Flinders is a hero for many Australians of European origin, with stations, streets, squares and towns across the country named after him.
His remains will be transferred to the Diocese of Lincoln for safekeeping until the burial arrangements are made.
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Captain Matthew Flinders
The remains of the first British explorer to circumnavigate Australia are to be reburied in his home village after being discovered near a busy London railway station.
The grave of Captain Matthew Flinders, who popularised Australia’s name, was discovered in January in a built-over former burial ground behind Euston terminus.
The site was being excavated for the HS2 high speed rail project, which will eventually link London with Birmingham and Manchester.
Flinders died aged 40 on July 19, 1814 — the day after the publication of “A Voyage to Terra Australis”, which described his 1802-1803 circumnavigation of Australia and proved that it was a continent.
With an estimated 40,000 remains at the former Saint James’s Church burial ground, archaeologists were not sure they were going to find Flinders, whose resting place had been subject to much speculation.
However, the ornate lead nameplate on his coffin was well-preserved, enabling archaeologists to identify the grave.
Flinders will be reburied in the parish church of Saint Mary and The Holy Rood in Donington, his home village in Lincolnshire, eastern England.
Flinders’ relatives and the local community had asked for his remains to be reinterred where he grew up before joining the Royal Navy.
“It is fitting that the last voyage of Captain Matthew Flinders will be back to the village of Donington,” said Helen Wass, HS2’s head of heritage.
“This local boy from Donington put Australia on the map due to his tenacity and expertise as a navigator and explorer.
“The Flinders name is synonymous with exploration, science and discovery, and HS2, through its archaeology programme, will ensure that we maximise the opportunities for further academic and scientific study.”
Archaeologists have studied his skeleton.
The Euston excavation was one of Britain’s largest ever digs, going down as deep as eight metres (26 feet), with the site protected from the elements under an 11,000 square-metre roof.
Flinders is a hero for many Australians of European origin, with stations, streets, squares and towns across the country named after him.
His remains will be transferred to the Diocese of Lincoln for safekeeping until the burial arrangements are made.
| 479
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Women’s equality is a term that covers broad spectrum of ideas and practices. The transition from communist rule has forced the men as well as the women to witness a number of changes. The end of communist rule has been a mixed blessing for the women of Central Europe. They have had to deal with a lot of uncertainty. Moreover the women have always found that they have been forced to satisfy the needs of the family in the first place keeping their own needs aside and this is because they are the ones who perform the core jobs of handling a family. They are responsible for caring for the emotional and psychological needs of all the family members. As a result they are not in a position to focus their entire attention to the economic matters of the nation. Not only this but also a lot of time and energy are drained away from the womenfolk in the process.
During the post communist period many women have benefited largely whereas many women have seen periods of increased hardship because their responsibility both in the domestic sphere as well as in the economic spheres have added up. The women during the post-communist era had jobs but they felt that it was a kind of “forced” or “pseudo” employment. There was a focus on the need for women to realize their femininity through domestic roles. The task of providing for the daily needs of the family had also become difficult than before and also the benefits of social legislation which the women used to get during the period of communist reign had also been withdrawn. It has been seen that in the post communist area both in the labor force and in the home the traditional gender roles have resurfaced as if legitimating gender inequality as it was a very common practice that even the educated women did not get jobs whereas the men could easily get jobs. (Verdey, 1991) There was an increasing tendency of confining women within the four walls of the home had increased. Women were very strictly marginalized from political issues. There was unrealistic expectation from the successful women. They were expected to be superwomen and thus they were expected to be equally successful both in the economic realm and in the domestic front which caused a greater amount of physical and psychological strain on the women and they were the victims of dual burden. There were economic disparities as well between the men and the women and consequently the women suffered a low standard of living. It can be concluded that the women in the post communist period had to face a lot of challenges as their living conditions were no easier. The movies were a reflection of the society’s attitude towards the women like the movie “A Woman Alone” (1981) also shows the hardship which a single woman has to face being trapped by the pressures of poverty and the harsh society. Irena has once said in the movie, “I am nobody. I didn’t fight in the war.
I don’t have a car. I work for pennies; nobody respects me” These bitter words from her actually shows she is well aware of her situation and has a lot of dejection in her mind just as most of the woman were well aware that their position is nothing more than a commodity in the society Irena who is an unwed mother drains her energies to run a family and she receives cruel treatment from her surroundings which is related to her “womanness” and her “single motherhood”. She has to bear a lot as a woman and all her relations with the men leave her either physically or emotionally bruised. It actually testifies the fact that the men treat the women as play instruments and soon dump them as was Irena dumped after being utilized. The physical strain of her job collapses her both physically and mentally. She leads a life of utter poverty far away from luxury. Her poverty is to an extent that she has to bathe with the used water of her son. Irena is a lonely woman and she has no-one to turn to in times of crisis. At times she feels that the world looks upon her cruelly. She turns to her aunt expecting some monetary benefit but it is of no use. She feels all the more helpless when she thinks that she has to educate a child alone, she in fact loses her path and is not able to decide the course which she should take. Irena does not even get any help from the society mainly because of the fact that she was an unwed mother; therefore it is entirely her responsibility to manage her life. The movie reflects of the helpless condition of a single woman who has no means, it makes the fact clear that nobody approaches a help to her because she is an unwed mother; one more reflection of the stigmas of the society. This film is actually a reflection of the fact of how the society treats a woman who is alone and how her scopes are limited and also stigmatizes a woman for a reason which is no reason at all. That the society fails to identify the dignity of a woman as a human being is the message which runs throughout the film. (Waller, What’s in your head).
As per as acceptance of the women of such roles are concerned it was found that many of the women intentionally took refuge in motherhood because they wanted to escape from the dual burden system and to escape the political manipulation and give more meanings to their lives. This was so because they believed that the home was a comparatively a free sphere for them, as they could exercise some amount of authority in their homes, whereas in the political or economic sphere they were bound to get dominated by the males. (Heitlinger). In this regard we can talk of the movie “Adoption” (1975) where the protagonist of the movie Kata had accepted defeat from her husband because it was expected so from a woman. The director gets a scope to show the part played by the state in the politics of gender. The reference of this particular movie is relevant here because it reflects the attitude of men towards women how they feel that it is not much necessary that the desires of a woman are fulfilled just as Kata in the movie who lives with a married who is far too distant from her and does not bother for her happiness at all. The movie reflects the patriarchy of the society where only the opinions of men are given importance as in the movie Kata could not get the joy of children because the man in her life did not approve of it. Joska, the man in Kata’s life very easily associates “fatherlessness” and “illegitimacy” and it is very clear that he is not ready to commit fully to Kata, which is again a reflection of the fact that most men are afraid of commitment and is happy only to derive pleasure from the women as Joska was doing. Later as the movie progresses Kata finds a soul mate in Anna and it is Anna who instigates the maternal instincts in her. Anna emulates widowed Kata in some ways and in this way the director wants to show the variants and vicissitudes and shows that a family of choice is more viable than a family of origin. Anna on the other hand fills incomplete because she has not been able to unite with her boyfriend. Thus they both share the common string of incompleteness. Towards the end of the movie Anna finds happiness by becoming a wife and Kata finds happiness after adopting a baby. The focus of the movie is that the society and the culture are such that women gain satisfaction through traditional roles like wife and mother. This is because the society has made the women feel so. (The Gendered State)
To the general tends of film makers there were also some exceptional film makes who worked for the issues relating to women. Such filmmakers were Chytilova and Krumbachova. They were the ones who tried to portray the disgraceful situation of the women in the society and how they were trying to recuperate their situation. One such movie was “Daisies” (1966), where Chytilova shows how the women react to their dejected condition. Though the film is filled with lot of exuberance and enthusiasm yet it meets an end which is filled with utter anger, nihilism, helplessness and despair. In the movie two seventeen year old girls feel that the world is meaningless so they play a game of it matters and it doesn’t matter. The two girls live in a vacuum without any past or future and they have an intense desire to cheat the world. The girls’ attitudes are linked with absolute political destruction. Though she portrays the naked bodies of the two girls in many places yet it is far from eroticism. In the film Chytilova tries to show something which is much deeper in meaning like existential pain and alienation but apparently the movie shows that the girls have a number of adventures but not with any particular motive but just for the purpose of amusing themselves and getting spoiled in the process exactly reflecting the society where the women suffered from alienation and a lot of respect in different subtle ways yet they keep on showing to the world that they are immensely happy. The girls have suffered alienation in various phases of their lives just because they are girls and so they try to get the attention of the people by doing something extraordinary. The stylization of the two girls like robots and like machine suggests the idea that the treatment of girls in the society were like machines and many of the scenes show that the two girls Jarmila and Jezinka are exploited by the males and they try their best to expel the male domination and assert their identity which actually reflects the feminist attitudes of the society where many women rebelled against the unfair treatment towards them. The men folk believed that they could program the women according to their whims and fancies. The movie also tries to focus on the fact that a woman’s sexuality becomes her ultimate recognition and the men of the society are only bothered in deriving sexual pleasure from the women and they are not actually interested in knowing the identity of the women. The voice which runs through the film is that the women are mere sources of pleasure for the men. In the movie the principal of anarchy is balanced by principal of structure. (Literature, Fancy and Experience)
Even the movie Loves of a Blonde (1965) reflects the miserable emotional deprivation of women in the society. The message is that a woman is crazy of love rather it is better said a woman seeks true love all through her life because in most cases she is treated as a commodity so whenever she gets the dignity which she should get as a woman she gets inclined to it as it was a common belief in the society that women are machines and they do not require any kind of emotional fulfillment so it is not necessary to treat them with love and respect. In the movie the young woman who is romance starved young girl gets attracted to a visiting piano player and she moves away along with him. As she moves away with him she discovers her troublesome parents but she doesn’t run away because she hopes to get an assurance of true love from the piano player. Therefore we can conclude from the movie that the director attempted to show the audience that for a woman love is more important than anything else.
The growing importance of the family had a growing negative connotation it was very much attached to the exploitation of women. Women were mainly represented in two different ways, they were represented either as women fulfilling the traditional roles of women that is caring and nurturing for the family and designated only to work for the family. The other way in which they were represented was in hedonistic manner, commoditized to a greater extent. Thus we can very well understand that the cinemas were in many reflections of the fact that the men were important in the society and not the women. The function of the women is only to satisfy the men with their sexuality both emotionally and physically and such kinds of movies might have dual reaction like it may bring about a realization in the minds of those who dominate and mistreat women perennially that the thing which they are doing is not correct and they should treat women more compassionately and with more respect. On the other hand there will be many who will fail to understand the subtle meanings expressed through the movies and will continue to think that it is absolutely correct and legitimate to subjugate and exploit women and to alienate them from the social, political and the economic system.
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Women’s equality is a term that covers broad spectrum of ideas and practices. The transition from communist rule has forced the men as well as the women to witness a number of changes. The end of communist rule has been a mixed blessing for the women of Central Europe. They have had to deal with a lot of uncertainty. Moreover the women have always found that they have been forced to satisfy the needs of the family in the first place keeping their own needs aside and this is because they are the ones who perform the core jobs of handling a family. They are responsible for caring for the emotional and psychological needs of all the family members. As a result they are not in a position to focus their entire attention to the economic matters of the nation. Not only this but also a lot of time and energy are drained away from the womenfolk in the process.
During the post communist period many women have benefited largely whereas many women have seen periods of increased hardship because their responsibility both in the domestic sphere as well as in the economic spheres have added up. The women during the post-communist era had jobs but they felt that it was a kind of “forced” or “pseudo” employment. There was a focus on the need for women to realize their femininity through domestic roles. The task of providing for the daily needs of the family had also become difficult than before and also the benefits of social legislation which the women used to get during the period of communist reign had also been withdrawn. It has been seen that in the post communist area both in the labor force and in the home the traditional gender roles have resurfaced as if legitimating gender inequality as it was a very common practice that even the educated women did not get jobs whereas the men could easily get jobs. (Verdey, 1991) There was an increasing tendency of confining women within the four walls of the home had increased. Women were very strictly marginalized from political issues. There was unrealistic expectation from the successful women. They were expected to be superwomen and thus they were expected to be equally successful both in the economic realm and in the domestic front which caused a greater amount of physical and psychological strain on the women and they were the victims of dual burden. There were economic disparities as well between the men and the women and consequently the women suffered a low standard of living. It can be concluded that the women in the post communist period had to face a lot of challenges as their living conditions were no easier. The movies were a reflection of the society’s attitude towards the women like the movie “A Woman Alone” (1981) also shows the hardship which a single woman has to face being trapped by the pressures of poverty and the harsh society. Irena has once said in the movie, “I am nobody. I didn’t fight in the war.
I don’t have a car. I work for pennies; nobody respects me” These bitter words from her actually shows she is well aware of her situation and has a lot of dejection in her mind just as most of the woman were well aware that their position is nothing more than a commodity in the society Irena who is an unwed mother drains her energies to run a family and she receives cruel treatment from her surroundings which is related to her “womanness” and her “single motherhood”. She has to bear a lot as a woman and all her relations with the men leave her either physically or emotionally bruised. It actually testifies the fact that the men treat the women as play instruments and soon dump them as was Irena dumped after being utilized. The physical strain of her job collapses her both physically and mentally. She leads a life of utter poverty far away from luxury. Her poverty is to an extent that she has to bathe with the used water of her son. Irena is a lonely woman and she has no-one to turn to in times of crisis. At times she feels that the world looks upon her cruelly. She turns to her aunt expecting some monetary benefit but it is of no use. She feels all the more helpless when she thinks that she has to educate a child alone, she in fact loses her path and is not able to decide the course which she should take. Irena does not even get any help from the society mainly because of the fact that she was an unwed mother; therefore it is entirely her responsibility to manage her life. The movie reflects of the helpless condition of a single woman who has no means, it makes the fact clear that nobody approaches a help to her because she is an unwed mother; one more reflection of the stigmas of the society. This film is actually a reflection of the fact of how the society treats a woman who is alone and how her scopes are limited and also stigmatizes a woman for a reason which is no reason at all. That the society fails to identify the dignity of a woman as a human being is the message which runs throughout the film. (Waller, What’s in your head).
As per as acceptance of the women of such roles are concerned it was found that many of the women intentionally took refuge in motherhood because they wanted to escape from the dual burden system and to escape the political manipulation and give more meanings to their lives. This was so because they believed that the home was a comparatively a free sphere for them, as they could exercise some amount of authority in their homes, whereas in the political or economic sphere they were bound to get dominated by the males. (Heitlinger). In this regard we can talk of the movie “Adoption” (1975) where the protagonist of the movie Kata had accepted defeat from her husband because it was expected so from a woman. The director gets a scope to show the part played by the state in the politics of gender. The reference of this particular movie is relevant here because it reflects the attitude of men towards women how they feel that it is not much necessary that the desires of a woman are fulfilled just as Kata in the movie who lives with a married who is far too distant from her and does not bother for her happiness at all. The movie reflects the patriarchy of the society where only the opinions of men are given importance as in the movie Kata could not get the joy of children because the man in her life did not approve of it. Joska, the man in Kata’s life very easily associates “fatherlessness” and “illegitimacy” and it is very clear that he is not ready to commit fully to Kata, which is again a reflection of the fact that most men are afraid of commitment and is happy only to derive pleasure from the women as Joska was doing. Later as the movie progresses Kata finds a soul mate in Anna and it is Anna who instigates the maternal instincts in her. Anna emulates widowed Kata in some ways and in this way the director wants to show the variants and vicissitudes and shows that a family of choice is more viable than a family of origin. Anna on the other hand fills incomplete because she has not been able to unite with her boyfriend. Thus they both share the common string of incompleteness. Towards the end of the movie Anna finds happiness by becoming a wife and Kata finds happiness after adopting a baby. The focus of the movie is that the society and the culture are such that women gain satisfaction through traditional roles like wife and mother. This is because the society has made the women feel so. (The Gendered State)
To the general tends of film makers there were also some exceptional film makes who worked for the issues relating to women. Such filmmakers were Chytilova and Krumbachova. They were the ones who tried to portray the disgraceful situation of the women in the society and how they were trying to recuperate their situation. One such movie was “Daisies” (1966), where Chytilova shows how the women react to their dejected condition. Though the film is filled with lot of exuberance and enthusiasm yet it meets an end which is filled with utter anger, nihilism, helplessness and despair. In the movie two seventeen year old girls feel that the world is meaningless so they play a game of it matters and it doesn’t matter. The two girls live in a vacuum without any past or future and they have an intense desire to cheat the world. The girls’ attitudes are linked with absolute political destruction. Though she portrays the naked bodies of the two girls in many places yet it is far from eroticism. In the film Chytilova tries to show something which is much deeper in meaning like existential pain and alienation but apparently the movie shows that the girls have a number of adventures but not with any particular motive but just for the purpose of amusing themselves and getting spoiled in the process exactly reflecting the society where the women suffered from alienation and a lot of respect in different subtle ways yet they keep on showing to the world that they are immensely happy. The girls have suffered alienation in various phases of their lives just because they are girls and so they try to get the attention of the people by doing something extraordinary. The stylization of the two girls like robots and like machine suggests the idea that the treatment of girls in the society were like machines and many of the scenes show that the two girls Jarmila and Jezinka are exploited by the males and they try their best to expel the male domination and assert their identity which actually reflects the feminist attitudes of the society where many women rebelled against the unfair treatment towards them. The men folk believed that they could program the women according to their whims and fancies. The movie also tries to focus on the fact that a woman’s sexuality becomes her ultimate recognition and the men of the society are only bothered in deriving sexual pleasure from the women and they are not actually interested in knowing the identity of the women. The voice which runs through the film is that the women are mere sources of pleasure for the men. In the movie the principal of anarchy is balanced by principal of structure. (Literature, Fancy and Experience)
Even the movie Loves of a Blonde (1965) reflects the miserable emotional deprivation of women in the society. The message is that a woman is crazy of love rather it is better said a woman seeks true love all through her life because in most cases she is treated as a commodity so whenever she gets the dignity which she should get as a woman she gets inclined to it as it was a common belief in the society that women are machines and they do not require any kind of emotional fulfillment so it is not necessary to treat them with love and respect. In the movie the young woman who is romance starved young girl gets attracted to a visiting piano player and she moves away along with him. As she moves away with him she discovers her troublesome parents but she doesn’t run away because she hopes to get an assurance of true love from the piano player. Therefore we can conclude from the movie that the director attempted to show the audience that for a woman love is more important than anything else.
The growing importance of the family had a growing negative connotation it was very much attached to the exploitation of women. Women were mainly represented in two different ways, they were represented either as women fulfilling the traditional roles of women that is caring and nurturing for the family and designated only to work for the family. The other way in which they were represented was in hedonistic manner, commoditized to a greater extent. Thus we can very well understand that the cinemas were in many reflections of the fact that the men were important in the society and not the women. The function of the women is only to satisfy the men with their sexuality both emotionally and physically and such kinds of movies might have dual reaction like it may bring about a realization in the minds of those who dominate and mistreat women perennially that the thing which they are doing is not correct and they should treat women more compassionately and with more respect. On the other hand there will be many who will fail to understand the subtle meanings expressed through the movies and will continue to think that it is absolutely correct and legitimate to subjugate and exploit women and to alienate them from the social, political and the economic system.
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Despite the variety of challenges that women in medicine have faced, today’s female physicians continue to inspire and save lives every day
According to the AMA website, in 1970 fewer than eight percent of physicians in the United States were women. According to the 2011 Physician Characteristics and Distribution study, by 2009 that percentage had increased to thirty, and the number of female doctors had grown by more than six fold. Women have made and continue to make vast progress in the field of medicine, and there have been many exceptional female doctors whose accomplishments deserve to be celebrated.
In “Woman as Physician,” H.B. Elliot describes the story of Elizabeth Blackwell: as the first woman in the United States to receive a medical degree, she was one of those doctors. When Dr. Blackwell graduated from Geneva Medical College in 1849, it would still be seventy years before women would be allowed to vote and 120 before women’s admission to Yale College. At the time, the Blackwells and other Quakers were some of the few people who believed in the equality of men and women. Indeed, when Geneva Medical College considered Dr. Blackwell’s application, the faculty asked the students to vote on her admission, with the condition that if one student objected they would not admit her. The students thought the entire issue was a joke and sent a facetious letter urging her acceptance. Even after earning her degree, Dr. Blackwell was banned from practice in most hospitals. Undeterred, in 1857 she and Dr. Marie Zakrzewska founded their own infirmary in New York. Later, during the Civil War, Dr. Blackwell trained many women to be nurses, and she eventually added a Women’s Medical College to her infirmary in order to train other female physicians.
- Written by Gianna FoteI
- Category: Profile of Women In Medicine
- Hits: 1360
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Despite the variety of challenges that women in medicine have faced, today’s female physicians continue to inspire and save lives every day
According to the AMA website, in 1970 fewer than eight percent of physicians in the United States were women. According to the 2011 Physician Characteristics and Distribution study, by 2009 that percentage had increased to thirty, and the number of female doctors had grown by more than six fold. Women have made and continue to make vast progress in the field of medicine, and there have been many exceptional female doctors whose accomplishments deserve to be celebrated.
In “Woman as Physician,” H.B. Elliot describes the story of Elizabeth Blackwell: as the first woman in the United States to receive a medical degree, she was one of those doctors. When Dr. Blackwell graduated from Geneva Medical College in 1849, it would still be seventy years before women would be allowed to vote and 120 before women’s admission to Yale College. At the time, the Blackwells and other Quakers were some of the few people who believed in the equality of men and women. Indeed, when Geneva Medical College considered Dr. Blackwell’s application, the faculty asked the students to vote on her admission, with the condition that if one student objected they would not admit her. The students thought the entire issue was a joke and sent a facetious letter urging her acceptance. Even after earning her degree, Dr. Blackwell was banned from practice in most hospitals. Undeterred, in 1857 she and Dr. Marie Zakrzewska founded their own infirmary in New York. Later, during the Civil War, Dr. Blackwell trained many women to be nurses, and she eventually added a Women’s Medical College to her infirmary in order to train other female physicians.
- Written by Gianna FoteI
- Category: Profile of Women In Medicine
- Hits: 1360
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ENGLISH
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Search - List of Books by Aeschylus
"The words of truth are simple." -- Aeschylus
Aeschylus ( ; , Aiskhulos; c. 524/525 BC — c. 455/456 BC) was the first of the three ancient Greek tragedians whose work has survived, the others being Sophocles and Euripides, and is often recognized as the father of tragedy. His name derives from the Greek word aiskhos (??????), meaning "shame". According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in plays to allow for conflict among them; previously, characters interacted only with the chorus. Only seven of an estimated seventy to ninety plays by Aeschylus have survived into modern times; there is an ongoing debate about the authorship of one of these plays, Prometheus Bound.
Total Books: 606
At least one of Aeschylus's works was influenced by the Persian invasion of Greece, which took place during his lifetime. His play The Persians remains a good primary source of information about this period in Greek history. The war was so important to the Greeks and to Aeschylus himself that, upon his death around 456 BC, his epitaph commemorated his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon rather than his success as a playwright.
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Search - List of Books by Aeschylus
"The words of truth are simple." -- Aeschylus
Aeschylus ( ; , Aiskhulos; c. 524/525 BC — c. 455/456 BC) was the first of the three ancient Greek tragedians whose work has survived, the others being Sophocles and Euripides, and is often recognized as the father of tragedy. His name derives from the Greek word aiskhos (??????), meaning "shame". According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in plays to allow for conflict among them; previously, characters interacted only with the chorus. Only seven of an estimated seventy to ninety plays by Aeschylus have survived into modern times; there is an ongoing debate about the authorship of one of these plays, Prometheus Bound.
Total Books: 606
At least one of Aeschylus's works was influenced by the Persian invasion of Greece, which took place during his lifetime. His play The Persians remains a good primary source of information about this period in Greek history. The war was so important to the Greeks and to Aeschylus himself that, upon his death around 456 BC, his epitaph commemorated his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon rather than his success as a playwright.
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William Faulkner was the first to turn the eyes of America toward the South six decades after the Civil War. The war was still a sore spot for most citizens of the United States and the people of the South were still considered by many as the enemy, not just because it had left the Union, but because of the complicated rules of her society. Faulkner allowed the rest of the country a glimpse into this world which can sometimes be macabre.
His short story A Rose For Emily, published in nineteen thirty, was told in third person limited point of view. The choice of narrator for this story was essential to the story because of the fact that the narrator is an insider in the culture that was almost forgotten previous to the Modernism Period. The narrator is a citizen of Jefferson, Mississippi in the county Yoknapatawpha County, the fictional town and county created by Faulkner that represented his own town of Oxford.
Any culture feels threatened when an outsider reveals its negative traits; therefore the narrator had to be a Southerner. When he tells the story, he uses the pronoun “we” when referring to the citizens of Jefferson. This allows the reader to understand that the narrator speaks for the town and is familiar with the culture. It seems if the one telling the story is a man even if this is never stated. A woman would not have made the statement that the narrator does about the reason that Colonel Sartoris has remitted her taxes. “Only a man of Colonel Sartoris' generation and thought could have invented it, and only a woman could have believed it.” (Faulkner)
From the statement one can surmise that the narrator is a male. He remains unnamed throughout the story, yet he would have to be elderly since he not only relates the details of Miss Emily’s, the protagonist, death, but can also relate the story of her youth. Miss Emily is of the aristocracy in Jefferson, yet the narrator is obviously not. He is probably working class because he knows her and is privileged to the information of the other citizens as well as having access to her actions when she is outside of her home.
He definitely sees a line drawn between himself and the Griersons, instead, he identifies with the majority of the citizens of the town of Jefferson. He has for years listened to the gossip of the small southern town and accepted it as truth, at times feeling sympathy and other times passing judgment on Miss Emily as well as the others. “Being left alone, and a pauper, she had become humanized.
Now she too would know the old thrill and the old despair of a penny more or less.” (Faulkner) He feels vindicated when she is brought down to the level of the rest of the people in town, yet his heart feels for her when she is left alone when her father dies and when it seems as if Homer Baron, her lover, has abandoned her. The fictional town Jefferson, Mississippi deep in the heart of the South shapes the narrator’s perspective of the story.
While the reader will be mortified by what takes place throughout the story, the narrator accepts them as just everyday happenings. Since the narrator is a citizen, the culture does not seem strange. Because of this the reader can understand that the way of life that is depicted is real. It really does matter what a person’s last name is and what class he/ was born into in Jefferson and other Southern towns.
It was feasible that certain people could walk into a drugstore and purchase poison without being questions just two weeks later when an odor was noticed outside of her home and her lover disappeared. The narrator would have to be familiar with this setting to not question it himself. His own reactions reveal that he expects the rest of the world to accept the ways of Jefferson and his Southern culture as normal and natural.
If Faulkner had chosen any other narrator than the average man from Jefferson the impact that the story had would not have been as incredible as it was. The reader would not have been able to bring an objective point of view to the story if he/she were clouded with the sympathy for Miss Emily telling her own story. It is vital to the story that she is dead at the end and cannot pay legally for what she has done, therefore she could not tell her story.
The fact that men and women will never truly understand the mind of the opposite sex makes a masculine narrator more objective. A female would understand Miss Emily too well and bring judgment to her actions. The only other character that could possibly tell Miss Emily’s story would be her servant, Toby. However, he is obviously too loyal to not be shaded by her actions. The negro met the first of the ladies at the front door and let them in, with their hushed, sibilant voices and their quick, curious glances, and then he disappeared.
He walked right through the house and out the back and was not seen again. (Faulkner) He would rather leave everything that he knows than to reveal the secrets he has kept for his whole adult life. He would simply be too reserved. The narrator that was chosen is the one who could tell the story and symbolically giving Miss Emily a rose by bringing her story to the world. Faulkner’s genius is clearly at work by choosing the narrator that he did. His choice of storyteller allowed the readers to realize that there was more to Southern people than the Confederacy and that was a society with clearly drawn lines and rules that were accepted as a way of life.
Faulkner, William. A Rose for Emily. 30, April 1930 Mead School District. 29, January 2009 ;
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William Faulkner was the first to turn the eyes of America toward the South six decades after the Civil War. The war was still a sore spot for most citizens of the United States and the people of the South were still considered by many as the enemy, not just because it had left the Union, but because of the complicated rules of her society. Faulkner allowed the rest of the country a glimpse into this world which can sometimes be macabre.
His short story A Rose For Emily, published in nineteen thirty, was told in third person limited point of view. The choice of narrator for this story was essential to the story because of the fact that the narrator is an insider in the culture that was almost forgotten previous to the Modernism Period. The narrator is a citizen of Jefferson, Mississippi in the county Yoknapatawpha County, the fictional town and county created by Faulkner that represented his own town of Oxford.
Any culture feels threatened when an outsider reveals its negative traits; therefore the narrator had to be a Southerner. When he tells the story, he uses the pronoun “we” when referring to the citizens of Jefferson. This allows the reader to understand that the narrator speaks for the town and is familiar with the culture. It seems if the one telling the story is a man even if this is never stated. A woman would not have made the statement that the narrator does about the reason that Colonel Sartoris has remitted her taxes. “Only a man of Colonel Sartoris' generation and thought could have invented it, and only a woman could have believed it.” (Faulkner)
From the statement one can surmise that the narrator is a male. He remains unnamed throughout the story, yet he would have to be elderly since he not only relates the details of Miss Emily’s, the protagonist, death, but can also relate the story of her youth. Miss Emily is of the aristocracy in Jefferson, yet the narrator is obviously not. He is probably working class because he knows her and is privileged to the information of the other citizens as well as having access to her actions when she is outside of her home.
He definitely sees a line drawn between himself and the Griersons, instead, he identifies with the majority of the citizens of the town of Jefferson. He has for years listened to the gossip of the small southern town and accepted it as truth, at times feeling sympathy and other times passing judgment on Miss Emily as well as the others. “Being left alone, and a pauper, she had become humanized.
Now she too would know the old thrill and the old despair of a penny more or less.” (Faulkner) He feels vindicated when she is brought down to the level of the rest of the people in town, yet his heart feels for her when she is left alone when her father dies and when it seems as if Homer Baron, her lover, has abandoned her. The fictional town Jefferson, Mississippi deep in the heart of the South shapes the narrator’s perspective of the story.
While the reader will be mortified by what takes place throughout the story, the narrator accepts them as just everyday happenings. Since the narrator is a citizen, the culture does not seem strange. Because of this the reader can understand that the way of life that is depicted is real. It really does matter what a person’s last name is and what class he/ was born into in Jefferson and other Southern towns.
It was feasible that certain people could walk into a drugstore and purchase poison without being questions just two weeks later when an odor was noticed outside of her home and her lover disappeared. The narrator would have to be familiar with this setting to not question it himself. His own reactions reveal that he expects the rest of the world to accept the ways of Jefferson and his Southern culture as normal and natural.
If Faulkner had chosen any other narrator than the average man from Jefferson the impact that the story had would not have been as incredible as it was. The reader would not have been able to bring an objective point of view to the story if he/she were clouded with the sympathy for Miss Emily telling her own story. It is vital to the story that she is dead at the end and cannot pay legally for what she has done, therefore she could not tell her story.
The fact that men and women will never truly understand the mind of the opposite sex makes a masculine narrator more objective. A female would understand Miss Emily too well and bring judgment to her actions. The only other character that could possibly tell Miss Emily’s story would be her servant, Toby. However, he is obviously too loyal to not be shaded by her actions. The negro met the first of the ladies at the front door and let them in, with their hushed, sibilant voices and their quick, curious glances, and then he disappeared.
He walked right through the house and out the back and was not seen again. (Faulkner) He would rather leave everything that he knows than to reveal the secrets he has kept for his whole adult life. He would simply be too reserved. The narrator that was chosen is the one who could tell the story and symbolically giving Miss Emily a rose by bringing her story to the world. Faulkner’s genius is clearly at work by choosing the narrator that he did. His choice of storyteller allowed the readers to realize that there was more to Southern people than the Confederacy and that was a society with clearly drawn lines and rules that were accepted as a way of life.
Faulkner, William. A Rose for Emily. 30, April 1930 Mead School District. 29, January 2009 ;
| 1,165
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ENGLISH
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It could be decades before the full health impact of months of smoke haze is known, experts say.
Professor in respiratory biology at the University of Technology in Sydney, Brian Oliver, said more research was needed to determine the medium and long-term health effects of bushfire smoke inundating Canberra and other parts of Australia the past few months.
"We don't know a whole lot," he said.
"People being exposed to bushfire smoke for more than one or two days is a whole new phenomena."
He said the effectiveness of protective gear like P2 masks was not fully known, and they had to be fitted perfectly to work.
"But my feeling is some smoke mask is better than no smoke mask," he said.
People being exposed to bushfire smoke for more than one or two days is a whole new phenomena.Professor Brian Oliver
It comes as Canberra Hospital says it has had about 120 respiratory presentations to its emergency department since December 31, likely attributed to the smoke.
Professor Oliver said if a major population health study of people exposed to the smoke was undertaken, the results would not be known for 10 to 20 years. "By the time you can measure, the horse has already bolted," he said.
He said a shorter term solution could be to experiment on cells to try to predict what the medium and longer term health effects would be. But professor Oliver said the research from countries with pollution from biomass smoke suggested there were serious long term effects from smoke.
"It causes very similar diseases to if you were smoking cigarettes," he said. "We have to work out how similar the bushfires are (to biomass smoke)."
He said wood smoke contained chemicals that could be carcinogens, but said different forests produced different fumes.
While it appeared bushfire smoke could cause cancer, it would likely take 20 or 30 years of exposure to do so, he said.
At the worst periods of smoke haze within Canberra, air quality rankings deemed it to have the most hazardous air pollution in the world. Professor Oliver said while the smoke was a different kind of pollution to those seen in places like China and India, each provided their own risks.
"Sometimes the pollution in Delhi is caused by crops burning and other times it's due to traffic pollution," he said.
"I think the air quality index is a good gauge to work out where are you most likely to have serious health effects."
So when Canberra was ranked higher than somewhere like Delhi, it gave a good indication that the health effects in Canberra were also worse.
Professor Oliver said a US study of air quality in China showed that every 20 units of PM2.5 particulate matter (like that seen in Canberra) was equivalent to smoking one cigarette.
"If you've only got only day's worth of exposure it's not going to have a big influence in the scheme of your life." he said.
"But now people have had two or three months of exposure there would be measurable health effects in the future."
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|
It could be decades before the full health impact of months of smoke haze is known, experts say.
Professor in respiratory biology at the University of Technology in Sydney, Brian Oliver, said more research was needed to determine the medium and long-term health effects of bushfire smoke inundating Canberra and other parts of Australia the past few months.
"We don't know a whole lot," he said.
"People being exposed to bushfire smoke for more than one or two days is a whole new phenomena."
He said the effectiveness of protective gear like P2 masks was not fully known, and they had to be fitted perfectly to work.
"But my feeling is some smoke mask is better than no smoke mask," he said.
People being exposed to bushfire smoke for more than one or two days is a whole new phenomena.Professor Brian Oliver
It comes as Canberra Hospital says it has had about 120 respiratory presentations to its emergency department since December 31, likely attributed to the smoke.
Professor Oliver said if a major population health study of people exposed to the smoke was undertaken, the results would not be known for 10 to 20 years. "By the time you can measure, the horse has already bolted," he said.
He said a shorter term solution could be to experiment on cells to try to predict what the medium and longer term health effects would be. But professor Oliver said the research from countries with pollution from biomass smoke suggested there were serious long term effects from smoke.
"It causes very similar diseases to if you were smoking cigarettes," he said. "We have to work out how similar the bushfires are (to biomass smoke)."
He said wood smoke contained chemicals that could be carcinogens, but said different forests produced different fumes.
While it appeared bushfire smoke could cause cancer, it would likely take 20 or 30 years of exposure to do so, he said.
At the worst periods of smoke haze within Canberra, air quality rankings deemed it to have the most hazardous air pollution in the world. Professor Oliver said while the smoke was a different kind of pollution to those seen in places like China and India, each provided their own risks.
"Sometimes the pollution in Delhi is caused by crops burning and other times it's due to traffic pollution," he said.
"I think the air quality index is a good gauge to work out where are you most likely to have serious health effects."
So when Canberra was ranked higher than somewhere like Delhi, it gave a good indication that the health effects in Canberra were also worse.
Professor Oliver said a US study of air quality in China showed that every 20 units of PM2.5 particulate matter (like that seen in Canberra) was equivalent to smoking one cigarette.
"If you've only got only day's worth of exposure it's not going to have a big influence in the scheme of your life." he said.
"But now people have had two or three months of exposure there would be measurable health effects in the future."
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Highlander of the 42nd regiment, 1808, by J. Smith
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe.
Poland had recently been partitioned by its three large neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The Duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon’s ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country.
The population of 4,3 million was released from occupation and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon’s armies. That included about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow; few marched back. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and one reason Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 was to punish them.
The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918. However Napoleon’s impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.
Major-General Sir Thomas Picton (1758 – 1815)
Born in 1758 in Pembrokeshire, Wales, he joined the 12th Suffolk Regiment of Foot in 1773 as an ensign. His initial army career ended in disillusionment when the 12th were disbanded in 1783.
He rejoined the Army some eleven years later, acting as an aide-de-camp in an expedition to the West Indies, which led to a colourful period of his life involving military expeditions, island governorship, slave trading and several court cases as a defendant. He was eventually acquitted, his reputation upheld, and he was promoted to Major-General in 1809 when he took part in the ill-fated Walcheren expedition. In 1810 he became a divisional commander in Spain, personally asked for by Wellington.
Picton became one of the ablest infantry commanders in Wellington‘s Army, capable of carrying out any task as long as it was clearly outlined to him. He was fiery-tempered and sometimes ill-mannered and uncouth. He was famed for favouring civilian clothes in war and fought the Battle of Bussaco in a night cap. Respected if not loved by his men of the 3rd Division, ‘the Fighting Third’, Picton was a valiant and decisive leader whose determination in the face of the enemy produced results time and time again.
His campaigning during the Peninsular War took a heavy toll on his health and mental state; causing him to leave the service in 1814, his nerves shot. He later reluctantly returned to Wellington‘s side for the Hundred Days’ campaign, despite premonitions of his own demise. Sadly these premonitions came true when he was shot in the temple whilst leading the 5th Division at Waterloo, after being wounded at Quatre Bras.
Why he was treated so lightly? After all, he had subjugated most parts of Continental Europe, threatened Britain with invasion, and burned Moscow. No effort was made either by the French or by the international community, to bring him to … Continue reading →
1821 British Cavalrymen.
Left to right: 10th Hussars, Royal Horse guards, Life Guards
By William Heath.
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Highlander of the 42nd regiment, 1808, by J. Smith
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe.
Poland had recently been partitioned by its three large neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The Duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon’s ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country.
The population of 4,3 million was released from occupation and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon’s armies. That included about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow; few marched back. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and one reason Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 was to punish them.
The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918. However Napoleon’s impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.
Major-General Sir Thomas Picton (1758 – 1815)
Born in 1758 in Pembrokeshire, Wales, he joined the 12th Suffolk Regiment of Foot in 1773 as an ensign. His initial army career ended in disillusionment when the 12th were disbanded in 1783.
He rejoined the Army some eleven years later, acting as an aide-de-camp in an expedition to the West Indies, which led to a colourful period of his life involving military expeditions, island governorship, slave trading and several court cases as a defendant. He was eventually acquitted, his reputation upheld, and he was promoted to Major-General in 1809 when he took part in the ill-fated Walcheren expedition. In 1810 he became a divisional commander in Spain, personally asked for by Wellington.
Picton became one of the ablest infantry commanders in Wellington‘s Army, capable of carrying out any task as long as it was clearly outlined to him. He was fiery-tempered and sometimes ill-mannered and uncouth. He was famed for favouring civilian clothes in war and fought the Battle of Bussaco in a night cap. Respected if not loved by his men of the 3rd Division, ‘the Fighting Third’, Picton was a valiant and decisive leader whose determination in the face of the enemy produced results time and time again.
His campaigning during the Peninsular War took a heavy toll on his health and mental state; causing him to leave the service in 1814, his nerves shot. He later reluctantly returned to Wellington‘s side for the Hundred Days’ campaign, despite premonitions of his own demise. Sadly these premonitions came true when he was shot in the temple whilst leading the 5th Division at Waterloo, after being wounded at Quatre Bras.
Why he was treated so lightly? After all, he had subjugated most parts of Continental Europe, threatened Britain with invasion, and burned Moscow. No effort was made either by the French or by the international community, to bring him to … Continue reading →
1821 British Cavalrymen.
Left to right: 10th Hussars, Royal Horse guards, Life Guards
By William Heath.
| 734
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ENGLISH
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Ida Bell Wells-Barnett was an African American journalist and advocate of women’s rights, including suffrage. Though she was born a slave in 1862 in Holly Springs, Mississippi, six months later the Emancipation Proclamation freed all slaves. Even though they were legally free citizens, her family faced racial prejudice and discrimination while living in Mississippi. Her father helped start Shaw University, and Ida received schooling there, but when she was 16, her parents and one of her siblings died of yellow fever. This meant that as the eldest, Ida had to stop going to school and start taking care of her eight sisters and brothers. Since the family direly needed money, Ida ingeniously convinced a county school official that she was 18 and managed to obtain a job as a teacher. In 1882, she moved to her aunt’s in Nashville with several siblings and at last continued her education at Fisk University.
A direct experience of prejudice in 1884 electrifyingly catalyzed Wells’ sense of the need to advocate for justice. While traveling from Memphis to Nashville, she bought a first-class train ticket, but was outraged when the crew told her to move to the car for African Americans. Refusing, Wells was forced off the train bodily; rather than giving in and giving up, she sued the railroad in circuit court and gained a judgment forcing them to pay her $500. Sadly, the state Supreme Court later overturned the decision; but this experience motivated her to write about Southern racial politics and prejudice. Various black publications published her articles, written under the nom-de-plume “Iola”. Wells later became an owner of two papers, the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight and Free Speech.
Besides her journalistic and publishing work, she also as a teacher at one of Memphis’ black-only public schools. She became a vocal critic of the condition of these segregated schools. This advocacy caused her to be fired from her job in 1891. The next year, three African American store owners clashed with the white owner of a store nearby who felt they were competing too successfully for local business; when the white store owner attacked their store with several allies, the black store owners ended up shooting several white men while defending their store. The three black men were taken to jail, but never had their day in court – a lynch mob dragged them out and murdered all three men. Moved to action by this horrible tragedy, she started writing about the lynchings of a friend and others, and went on to do in-depth investigative reporting of lynching in America, risking her life to do so.
While away in New York, Wells was told that her office had been trashed by a mob, and that if she ever came back to Memphis she would be killed. She remained in the North and published an in-depth article on lynching for the New York Age, a paper owned by a former slave; she then toured abroad, lecturing on the issue in the hope of enlisting the support of pro-reform whites. When she found out that black exhibitors were banned at the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition, she published a pamphlet with the support and backing of famed freed slave and abolitionist Frederick Douglass, as well as “A Red Record,” a personal report on lynchings in America.
In 1896, Wells founded the National Association of Colored Women; and in 1898, she took her anti-lynching campaign to the White House and led a protest in Washington D.C. to urge President McKinley to act. She was a founding member of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), but later cut ties with the organization, feeling that it wasn’t sufficiently focused on taking action. Wells also worked on behalf of all women and was a part of the National Equal Rights League; she continuously fought for women’s suffrage. She even ran for the state senate in 1930, but the next year her health failed, and she died of kidney disease at the age of 68. Well’s life is a testament to courage in the face of danger.
“I felt that one had better die fighting against injustice than to die like a dog or rat in a trap. I had already determined to sell my life as dearly as possible if attacked. I felt if I could take one lyncher with me, this would even up the score a little bit.”
— Ida B. Wells
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Ida Bell Wells-Barnett was an African American journalist and advocate of women’s rights, including suffrage. Though she was born a slave in 1862 in Holly Springs, Mississippi, six months later the Emancipation Proclamation freed all slaves. Even though they were legally free citizens, her family faced racial prejudice and discrimination while living in Mississippi. Her father helped start Shaw University, and Ida received schooling there, but when she was 16, her parents and one of her siblings died of yellow fever. This meant that as the eldest, Ida had to stop going to school and start taking care of her eight sisters and brothers. Since the family direly needed money, Ida ingeniously convinced a county school official that she was 18 and managed to obtain a job as a teacher. In 1882, she moved to her aunt’s in Nashville with several siblings and at last continued her education at Fisk University.
A direct experience of prejudice in 1884 electrifyingly catalyzed Wells’ sense of the need to advocate for justice. While traveling from Memphis to Nashville, she bought a first-class train ticket, but was outraged when the crew told her to move to the car for African Americans. Refusing, Wells was forced off the train bodily; rather than giving in and giving up, she sued the railroad in circuit court and gained a judgment forcing them to pay her $500. Sadly, the state Supreme Court later overturned the decision; but this experience motivated her to write about Southern racial politics and prejudice. Various black publications published her articles, written under the nom-de-plume “Iola”. Wells later became an owner of two papers, the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight and Free Speech.
Besides her journalistic and publishing work, she also as a teacher at one of Memphis’ black-only public schools. She became a vocal critic of the condition of these segregated schools. This advocacy caused her to be fired from her job in 1891. The next year, three African American store owners clashed with the white owner of a store nearby who felt they were competing too successfully for local business; when the white store owner attacked their store with several allies, the black store owners ended up shooting several white men while defending their store. The three black men were taken to jail, but never had their day in court – a lynch mob dragged them out and murdered all three men. Moved to action by this horrible tragedy, she started writing about the lynchings of a friend and others, and went on to do in-depth investigative reporting of lynching in America, risking her life to do so.
While away in New York, Wells was told that her office had been trashed by a mob, and that if she ever came back to Memphis she would be killed. She remained in the North and published an in-depth article on lynching for the New York Age, a paper owned by a former slave; she then toured abroad, lecturing on the issue in the hope of enlisting the support of pro-reform whites. When she found out that black exhibitors were banned at the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition, she published a pamphlet with the support and backing of famed freed slave and abolitionist Frederick Douglass, as well as “A Red Record,” a personal report on lynchings in America.
In 1896, Wells founded the National Association of Colored Women; and in 1898, she took her anti-lynching campaign to the White House and led a protest in Washington D.C. to urge President McKinley to act. She was a founding member of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), but later cut ties with the organization, feeling that it wasn’t sufficiently focused on taking action. Wells also worked on behalf of all women and was a part of the National Equal Rights League; she continuously fought for women’s suffrage. She even ran for the state senate in 1930, but the next year her health failed, and she died of kidney disease at the age of 68. Well’s life is a testament to courage in the face of danger.
“I felt that one had better die fighting against injustice than to die like a dog or rat in a trap. I had already determined to sell my life as dearly as possible if attacked. I felt if I could take one lyncher with me, this would even up the score a little bit.”
— Ida B. Wells
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ENGLISH
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Independence for the Republic of Latvia was a serendipitous result of historic circumstances. Latvia would not have declared independence if Germany and Russia had not lost World War I and had not had revolutions, if civil war had not broken out in Russia, and if the Entente had not declared the right of nations to self-determination.
The idea of Latvian independence did not just appear on 18 November 1918 or even 17 November, but much earlier. Indeed, the idea of an independent Latvia was not widespread among the inhabitants of Latvia (ethnic Latvians included) until 1917, but the situation began to change dramatically in the summer of 1917. After a series of events, including the fall of Riga to the Germans in September, the Bolshevik revolution in November, and the dissolution of the Russian Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the idea of Latvian independence was supported by a majority of Latvian political parties and social organizations. It is for good reason that contemporaries and historians alike believe that Latvia’s independence was declared before 18 November 1918, as indicated by resolutions adopted by the Latvian Provisional National Council on 2 December 1917 and 30 January 1918. In addition, Britain recognized the Provisional Council as the de facto government of Latvia a week before 18 November 1918. Therefore, the declaration of independence was not serendipity and would have occurred at the first opportunity.
Latvian independence was declared on 18 November 1918 by 38 lesser-known Latvian politicians, who represented eight insignificant and unpopular parties. Moreover, the most significant political power holder, Latvian Social Democracy (Bolsheviks), did not participate in or support the proclamation of the Republic of Latvia.
The majority of the eight political parties that made up the People’s Council of Latvia formed to declare an independent state was, in fact, small in number with little support in society. Yet the same could not be said about the Latvian Farmers’ Union (LZS) or the Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party (LSDSP). LZS had participated in all the most important 1917 Latvian territorial elections, obtaining 20–25% voter support. LSDSP, which had separated from the Bolshevik-controlled Latvian Social Democracy in the spring of 1918, had undeniable support among Latvian workers. This was witnessed, for example, by the party’s victory, under very difficult circumstances, in Liepāja City Council elections in January 1919. The party was well organized and had 2-3 times more party members than did the Bolsheviks at the time of declaration of independence. In addition, after the end of the War for Independence (1918–1920), LSDSP won all parliamentary elections.
Moreover, there were many well-known politicians amongst those present at the declaration of independence, including LSDSP Central Committee chair Pauls Kalniņš, LZS leader Kārlis Ulmanis, former Russian Duma member Jānis Zālītis, former Riga mayor Gustavs Zemgals, Jānis Akuraters, Atis Ķeniņš, Miķelis Valters, and Fricis Menders.
The declaration of Latvian independence on 18 November 1918 took place so quietly that there was no celebration in the city, and the majority of people had no idea that an important historic event had occurred that day. Inhabitants were indifferent to the news of the declaration of independence and some even received it with hostility.
The ceremony on 18 November was comparatively ambitious, considering the post-war situation in Riga, where the German occupiers were still in power. The organizers prepared 1200 invitations, which were divided equally between the representatives of the various political powers. Those who were present stated that the Riga Second City Theatre (today – Latvian National Theatre) was over-crowded on 18 November. The theatre was chosen specifically because it could accommodate the large number of people interested in participating. It is known that seating capacity in the theatre was around 800, so the total number present could have been around 1000, which in itself was a significant number, considering the event was planned in a hurry and took place on a Sunday. Guests consisted mostly of members of the intelligentsia, including students, but also many workers – LSDSP received 400 invitations to the event.
The 18 November ceremony was described widely and in great detail in the largest Latvian newspapers, including the German press. The press also published the declaration that all power had been transferred to the Latvian People’s Council and that Latvia was now an independent democratic republic. There is no doubt that within days, the vast majority of the residents of Latvia knew of the declaration of independence. There were press reports of celebrations in many schools in Riga. Students at the then Baltic Technical Institute of Higher Education (today – University of Latvia) hung Latvian flags and created an honour guard. In other places in Riga, the national flag was flown as well, creating a notable stir among the people.
The declaration did not go unnoticed among people outside Riga as well. For example, a Valmiera general secondary school cancelled the last three classes of the day in honour of the event. Widely publicized events took place in Liepāja, where several thousand people, including many workers, attended an event at St. Anna’s Church. Many national flags were waved by those in attendance, and the Latvian flag was also flown over the Liepāja Latvian Society Hall.
The Provisional Government was a German puppet government, Kārlis Ulmanis was of German ancestry, and the Republic of Latvia was a German-inspired project. The Latvian government was funded by the Germans and could only function with the protection of German military forces.
At the time of the declaration of independence, Germany had not yet recovered from the recently occurred November revolution and did not have a clear policy regarding the Baltics. The local Baltic Germans attempted to create a Baltic state that would include Latvia and Estonia. The leadership (Regent Council) of this “state” continued to operate until 28 November 1918. The negative attitude of Estonia and Latvia towards the possibility of such a state, as well as the Ententes’ dismissive position, did not allow the Germans to realize their plans for the creation of a Baltic state.
True, the newly formed Latvian state did receive some support from some government of “revolutionary” Germany, as well as from some German and Soviet soldiers and sailors. German soldiers were scheduled to be sent back to Germany and were interested in the quick creation of a Latvian state, which would relieve them of the duty of protection of this territory from communist invasion. A week after the declaration of independence, Germany recognized Latvia de facto. Recognition notwithstanding, the German occupying forces placed hurdles in the way of forming the new state. They hesitated in dismantling occupying institutions and handing over state functions to the Ulmanis-led Provisional Government; they also initially refused to arm Latvian military units and continued to delay the process, even after signing the associated treaty.
In addition, the actions of the Provisional Government did not indicate that it was a German marionette. Ulmanis’ government attempted to establish close relations with the members of the Entente (Germany’s enemies), regain control of German occupying institutions, and refused to grant land to German soldiers who had fought against the Bolsheviks, even though the Germans persistently attempted to gain such rights. It should also be noted that the People’s Council originally wished to hold the 18 November ceremony in Riga Castle, home to the German 8th Army High Command, in order to raise the flag and symbolically demonstrate Latvia’s victory over the occupying forces. Ultimately, it was decided not to use Riga Castle because the Germans categorically refused to lower their flag, and the space was too small to be able to hold such an auspicious ceremony.
If the Latvian Provisional Government was not a German marionette, then it was a British puppet. Great Britain had recognized Latvian independence de facto a week before the formal declaration. Great Britain wished to create a cordon sanitaire between German and Russia and, thus, created the Republic of Latvia.
Great Britain was truly interested in limiting the spread of communism, but by the summer of 1919 and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, their priority was not stopping Soviet Russia but rather putting pressure upon Germany, which could resume military actions at any time. For this reason, Great Britain offered limited assistance to the Provisional Government of Latvia – small deliveries of ammunition and protection of Kārlis Ulmanis’ Cabinet (toppled by the Germans) on 16 April on one of the ships in their fleet off the coast of Liepāja. The British did not rush to establish contacts with the Latvian government and refused to use their war ships to defend Riga against the Red Army in early January 1919. Great Britain and France involved their war ships in actions in Latvia only during the October-November 1919 campaign against the pro-German Bermondt army. The British lost several sailors in these battles.
British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, formally recognized Latvia’s independence on 11 November 1918. Yet, it did not recognize the People’s Council but its precursor – the Latvian Provisional National Council (LPNP) – as the de facto government of Latvia. This was not surprising, as the LPNP had attempted to maintain close ties with British and French diplomats since the end of 1917. In 1918, Great Britain also provided financial aid to the LPNP. Yet, the British-recognized LPNP did not become the government of Latvia, nor did they make up the base of the People’s Council, although a number of LNLP members became Cabinet Ministers.
The fact that civil war broke out immediately after the declaration of independence indicates that the Provisional Government, led by Kārlis Ulmanis, did not represent the interests of the majority of society. At one point, there were three concurrent governments in Latvia. This indicates that the local Germans and communists, who were supported by wide segments of society, did not support the creation of the Republic of Latvia.
The assertion that Latvia experienced a civil war from 1918 to 1920 is misleading. At the end of 1918, the preconditions for civil war did not exist. Local communists in Latvia were very few – only about 800. In comparison, the Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party, which supported the creation of the Republic of Latvia, had approximately 2500 members. The situation changed after the entrance of Russian Red Army, which brought with it thousands of communists (mostly Latvians living in Russia). Latvian communists even admitted that without the help of the Red Army, they would not have been able to engage in armed resistance or wrest power from the Provisional Government.
It served Germany and Soviet Russia to portray the events in Latvia as civil war and not foreign aggression. Thus, it was advantageous for both the Germans and also the communists to attempt to create pseudo-permanent state and political structures, which were very unpopular amongst the local people, despite massive financial and military support. The need to hide their aggression was also the reason that neither Germany nor Russia formally declared war on Latvia, even though both countries were forced to sign peace treaties with the Republic of Latvia in 1920. These treaties indicate that both countries were actually at war with Latvia. Formally, the Provisional Government declared a state of war on 11 February 1919, and ceased diplomatic relations with Germany on 25 November 1919. Latvia is one of the rare countries (perhaps the only one) that has fought against both Germany and Russia simultaneously and won.
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Independence for the Republic of Latvia was a serendipitous result of historic circumstances. Latvia would not have declared independence if Germany and Russia had not lost World War I and had not had revolutions, if civil war had not broken out in Russia, and if the Entente had not declared the right of nations to self-determination.
The idea of Latvian independence did not just appear on 18 November 1918 or even 17 November, but much earlier. Indeed, the idea of an independent Latvia was not widespread among the inhabitants of Latvia (ethnic Latvians included) until 1917, but the situation began to change dramatically in the summer of 1917. After a series of events, including the fall of Riga to the Germans in September, the Bolshevik revolution in November, and the dissolution of the Russian Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the idea of Latvian independence was supported by a majority of Latvian political parties and social organizations. It is for good reason that contemporaries and historians alike believe that Latvia’s independence was declared before 18 November 1918, as indicated by resolutions adopted by the Latvian Provisional National Council on 2 December 1917 and 30 January 1918. In addition, Britain recognized the Provisional Council as the de facto government of Latvia a week before 18 November 1918. Therefore, the declaration of independence was not serendipity and would have occurred at the first opportunity.
Latvian independence was declared on 18 November 1918 by 38 lesser-known Latvian politicians, who represented eight insignificant and unpopular parties. Moreover, the most significant political power holder, Latvian Social Democracy (Bolsheviks), did not participate in or support the proclamation of the Republic of Latvia.
The majority of the eight political parties that made up the People’s Council of Latvia formed to declare an independent state was, in fact, small in number with little support in society. Yet the same could not be said about the Latvian Farmers’ Union (LZS) or the Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party (LSDSP). LZS had participated in all the most important 1917 Latvian territorial elections, obtaining 20–25% voter support. LSDSP, which had separated from the Bolshevik-controlled Latvian Social Democracy in the spring of 1918, had undeniable support among Latvian workers. This was witnessed, for example, by the party’s victory, under very difficult circumstances, in Liepāja City Council elections in January 1919. The party was well organized and had 2-3 times more party members than did the Bolsheviks at the time of declaration of independence. In addition, after the end of the War for Independence (1918–1920), LSDSP won all parliamentary elections.
Moreover, there were many well-known politicians amongst those present at the declaration of independence, including LSDSP Central Committee chair Pauls Kalniņš, LZS leader Kārlis Ulmanis, former Russian Duma member Jānis Zālītis, former Riga mayor Gustavs Zemgals, Jānis Akuraters, Atis Ķeniņš, Miķelis Valters, and Fricis Menders.
The declaration of Latvian independence on 18 November 1918 took place so quietly that there was no celebration in the city, and the majority of people had no idea that an important historic event had occurred that day. Inhabitants were indifferent to the news of the declaration of independence and some even received it with hostility.
The ceremony on 18 November was comparatively ambitious, considering the post-war situation in Riga, where the German occupiers were still in power. The organizers prepared 1200 invitations, which were divided equally between the representatives of the various political powers. Those who were present stated that the Riga Second City Theatre (today – Latvian National Theatre) was over-crowded on 18 November. The theatre was chosen specifically because it could accommodate the large number of people interested in participating. It is known that seating capacity in the theatre was around 800, so the total number present could have been around 1000, which in itself was a significant number, considering the event was planned in a hurry and took place on a Sunday. Guests consisted mostly of members of the intelligentsia, including students, but also many workers – LSDSP received 400 invitations to the event.
The 18 November ceremony was described widely and in great detail in the largest Latvian newspapers, including the German press. The press also published the declaration that all power had been transferred to the Latvian People’s Council and that Latvia was now an independent democratic republic. There is no doubt that within days, the vast majority of the residents of Latvia knew of the declaration of independence. There were press reports of celebrations in many schools in Riga. Students at the then Baltic Technical Institute of Higher Education (today – University of Latvia) hung Latvian flags and created an honour guard. In other places in Riga, the national flag was flown as well, creating a notable stir among the people.
The declaration did not go unnoticed among people outside Riga as well. For example, a Valmiera general secondary school cancelled the last three classes of the day in honour of the event. Widely publicized events took place in Liepāja, where several thousand people, including many workers, attended an event at St. Anna’s Church. Many national flags were waved by those in attendance, and the Latvian flag was also flown over the Liepāja Latvian Society Hall.
The Provisional Government was a German puppet government, Kārlis Ulmanis was of German ancestry, and the Republic of Latvia was a German-inspired project. The Latvian government was funded by the Germans and could only function with the protection of German military forces.
At the time of the declaration of independence, Germany had not yet recovered from the recently occurred November revolution and did not have a clear policy regarding the Baltics. The local Baltic Germans attempted to create a Baltic state that would include Latvia and Estonia. The leadership (Regent Council) of this “state” continued to operate until 28 November 1918. The negative attitude of Estonia and Latvia towards the possibility of such a state, as well as the Ententes’ dismissive position, did not allow the Germans to realize their plans for the creation of a Baltic state.
True, the newly formed Latvian state did receive some support from some government of “revolutionary” Germany, as well as from some German and Soviet soldiers and sailors. German soldiers were scheduled to be sent back to Germany and were interested in the quick creation of a Latvian state, which would relieve them of the duty of protection of this territory from communist invasion. A week after the declaration of independence, Germany recognized Latvia de facto. Recognition notwithstanding, the German occupying forces placed hurdles in the way of forming the new state. They hesitated in dismantling occupying institutions and handing over state functions to the Ulmanis-led Provisional Government; they also initially refused to arm Latvian military units and continued to delay the process, even after signing the associated treaty.
In addition, the actions of the Provisional Government did not indicate that it was a German marionette. Ulmanis’ government attempted to establish close relations with the members of the Entente (Germany’s enemies), regain control of German occupying institutions, and refused to grant land to German soldiers who had fought against the Bolsheviks, even though the Germans persistently attempted to gain such rights. It should also be noted that the People’s Council originally wished to hold the 18 November ceremony in Riga Castle, home to the German 8th Army High Command, in order to raise the flag and symbolically demonstrate Latvia’s victory over the occupying forces. Ultimately, it was decided not to use Riga Castle because the Germans categorically refused to lower their flag, and the space was too small to be able to hold such an auspicious ceremony.
If the Latvian Provisional Government was not a German marionette, then it was a British puppet. Great Britain had recognized Latvian independence de facto a week before the formal declaration. Great Britain wished to create a cordon sanitaire between German and Russia and, thus, created the Republic of Latvia.
Great Britain was truly interested in limiting the spread of communism, but by the summer of 1919 and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, their priority was not stopping Soviet Russia but rather putting pressure upon Germany, which could resume military actions at any time. For this reason, Great Britain offered limited assistance to the Provisional Government of Latvia – small deliveries of ammunition and protection of Kārlis Ulmanis’ Cabinet (toppled by the Germans) on 16 April on one of the ships in their fleet off the coast of Liepāja. The British did not rush to establish contacts with the Latvian government and refused to use their war ships to defend Riga against the Red Army in early January 1919. Great Britain and France involved their war ships in actions in Latvia only during the October-November 1919 campaign against the pro-German Bermondt army. The British lost several sailors in these battles.
British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, formally recognized Latvia’s independence on 11 November 1918. Yet, it did not recognize the People’s Council but its precursor – the Latvian Provisional National Council (LPNP) – as the de facto government of Latvia. This was not surprising, as the LPNP had attempted to maintain close ties with British and French diplomats since the end of 1917. In 1918, Great Britain also provided financial aid to the LPNP. Yet, the British-recognized LPNP did not become the government of Latvia, nor did they make up the base of the People’s Council, although a number of LNLP members became Cabinet Ministers.
The fact that civil war broke out immediately after the declaration of independence indicates that the Provisional Government, led by Kārlis Ulmanis, did not represent the interests of the majority of society. At one point, there were three concurrent governments in Latvia. This indicates that the local Germans and communists, who were supported by wide segments of society, did not support the creation of the Republic of Latvia.
The assertion that Latvia experienced a civil war from 1918 to 1920 is misleading. At the end of 1918, the preconditions for civil war did not exist. Local communists in Latvia were very few – only about 800. In comparison, the Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party, which supported the creation of the Republic of Latvia, had approximately 2500 members. The situation changed after the entrance of Russian Red Army, which brought with it thousands of communists (mostly Latvians living in Russia). Latvian communists even admitted that without the help of the Red Army, they would not have been able to engage in armed resistance or wrest power from the Provisional Government.
It served Germany and Soviet Russia to portray the events in Latvia as civil war and not foreign aggression. Thus, it was advantageous for both the Germans and also the communists to attempt to create pseudo-permanent state and political structures, which were very unpopular amongst the local people, despite massive financial and military support. The need to hide their aggression was also the reason that neither Germany nor Russia formally declared war on Latvia, even though both countries were forced to sign peace treaties with the Republic of Latvia in 1920. These treaties indicate that both countries were actually at war with Latvia. Formally, the Provisional Government declared a state of war on 11 February 1919, and ceased diplomatic relations with Germany on 25 November 1919. Latvia is one of the rare countries (perhaps the only one) that has fought against both Germany and Russia simultaneously and won.
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On August 10, 1821 Missouri officially became a state. At that time the capital was in St. Charles, but plans for a new state capital were in the works. From what we could ascertain, Jefferson City was the only place specifically created to serve as the capital of a state. After the Missouri state legislature commissioned the new capital in 1821, it was ready for occupancy in 1826. Many in the state of Missouri did not like the new location and worked to get the capital changed. Our visit to Jefferson City would help us gain a better understanding of the storied history around this unique destination.
We want to thank Visit Jefferson City for their hospitality. Rest assured all opinions are our own.
What better place to start our storied history lesson than at the oldest structure in Jefferson City. The Lohman Building was originally constructed in 1839, by a man named James Crump, and has served a multitude of purposes. (The name comes from a later sale to Charles Lohman.) Over time, it has been a warehouse, where freight was unloaded from the railroad, before being moved upriver by paddle-boat. Visitors to the growing capital city were housed in the building when it served as a hotel. During this period, the lower floor was used as a grocery store, tavern, and telegraph office. Commonly referred to as ‘ The Landing’, it was a popular destination for legislators to gather for refreshments.
Securing the Capital
With so many citizens looking to move the capital, something had to be done to secure its present location. In 1832, the current governor suggested the city construct a state penitentiary in Jefferson City. This was completed in 1836, and it settled the issue of moving the capital. Tragedy struck the following year, as the Capitol building burned to the ground. It would take five years to rebuild. As we toured Lohman’s Landing, we tried to imagine life two decades before the Civil War. These simpler times certainly had their own set of trials and tribulations.
By 1840, Jefferson City had grown to over 1,000 residents. James Crump had constructed his building by the river just one year earlier. This impressive stone structure was the first that many saw when stepping off the boats in Jefferson City. Local industries were booming, as an influx of German immigrants flooded the nearby farmlands. These new citizens would push the development of distilleries, tanneries and flour mills. When a ship loaded with cholera infected Mormons arrived in 1849, it would have a paralyzing affect on local business that would last for a couple of years.
It took until 1855 for the Pacific Railroad to connect Jefferson City to St. Louis. The inaugural trip would once again bring disaster to Jefferson City. The locals had gathered on a pier, to await the arrival of dignitaries. When the structure collapsed onto a bridge spanning the Gasconade River, 28 people were killed and as many more injured. Eventually, a regular railroad service would be established by 1856. The storied history of the capital city was proving to be filled with many epic moments.
A Country at War
Civil War struck deeply in the center of the country. Missouri was struggling to determine its stance on slavery, even though the legislature had voted to remain in the Union. When a request for Union troops was issued, the governor instead rallied 50,000 troops to join Confederate forces. Union troops took control of the capital city and resisted any attempts of Confederate control. The closest fighting involved exchanged cannon fire with troops being led by former Missouri Governor Sterling Price. The effects of the Civil War in Missouri would leave a feeling of resentment on both sides. (More Missouri Civil War history can be found here.)
In Jefferson City, the stone structure that Charles Crump had constructed was being used as a hotel. A business associate, who had leased the upper floors, received plenty of business from travelers along the river. This lodging option started as the Missouri Hotel but would see a name change to the Union Hotel, in reference to the owners Civil War sentiments.
Bringing Peace Back to Capital City
It took until 1875 for the legislature to revise the Missouri constitution. Once this was completed, it allowed the citizens to move past the economically stifling war. New industries would blossom, including shoe manufacturing and printing. The influx of settlers passing into the west would provide much-needed revenue for local businesses. The heyday of river travel was coming to an end, as more people began traveling by rail. The Lohman building closed up shop to retail customers and was turned into a warehouse.
Just as things seemed to be returning to a state of normalcy, the idea of moving the state capital once again rose its ugly head. In 1896, the city of Sedalia attempted to win this favor but was voted down by the citizens of Missouri. After the turn of the century, the business of state government became the dominating tone of Jefferson City. The storied history of Jefferson Landing would see the Lohman warehouse converted into the Tweedie Shoe Company.
It would take until the 1960s before the state would acquire the property. Sitting nearby the capital, this historic structure had been an important piece of the storied history of the surrounding area. Our tour of this FREE attraction, allowed us a look back at life in a simpler time. We can imagine stepping off of a riverboat, and stopping in the store for supplies, before heading off to wherever our travels would lead us. On the day of our visit, we noticed a surprisingly large number of people at the site. We would learn that the local Amtrak stop is located across the street from Lohman’s Landing. This is certainly something to keep in mind for future visits. With shopping and dining, as well as the capitol building, so close by, it would make a perfect train day trip. Have you ever taken an Amtrak trip?
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] | 7
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On August 10, 1821 Missouri officially became a state. At that time the capital was in St. Charles, but plans for a new state capital were in the works. From what we could ascertain, Jefferson City was the only place specifically created to serve as the capital of a state. After the Missouri state legislature commissioned the new capital in 1821, it was ready for occupancy in 1826. Many in the state of Missouri did not like the new location and worked to get the capital changed. Our visit to Jefferson City would help us gain a better understanding of the storied history around this unique destination.
We want to thank Visit Jefferson City for their hospitality. Rest assured all opinions are our own.
What better place to start our storied history lesson than at the oldest structure in Jefferson City. The Lohman Building was originally constructed in 1839, by a man named James Crump, and has served a multitude of purposes. (The name comes from a later sale to Charles Lohman.) Over time, it has been a warehouse, where freight was unloaded from the railroad, before being moved upriver by paddle-boat. Visitors to the growing capital city were housed in the building when it served as a hotel. During this period, the lower floor was used as a grocery store, tavern, and telegraph office. Commonly referred to as ‘ The Landing’, it was a popular destination for legislators to gather for refreshments.
Securing the Capital
With so many citizens looking to move the capital, something had to be done to secure its present location. In 1832, the current governor suggested the city construct a state penitentiary in Jefferson City. This was completed in 1836, and it settled the issue of moving the capital. Tragedy struck the following year, as the Capitol building burned to the ground. It would take five years to rebuild. As we toured Lohman’s Landing, we tried to imagine life two decades before the Civil War. These simpler times certainly had their own set of trials and tribulations.
By 1840, Jefferson City had grown to over 1,000 residents. James Crump had constructed his building by the river just one year earlier. This impressive stone structure was the first that many saw when stepping off the boats in Jefferson City. Local industries were booming, as an influx of German immigrants flooded the nearby farmlands. These new citizens would push the development of distilleries, tanneries and flour mills. When a ship loaded with cholera infected Mormons arrived in 1849, it would have a paralyzing affect on local business that would last for a couple of years.
It took until 1855 for the Pacific Railroad to connect Jefferson City to St. Louis. The inaugural trip would once again bring disaster to Jefferson City. The locals had gathered on a pier, to await the arrival of dignitaries. When the structure collapsed onto a bridge spanning the Gasconade River, 28 people were killed and as many more injured. Eventually, a regular railroad service would be established by 1856. The storied history of the capital city was proving to be filled with many epic moments.
A Country at War
Civil War struck deeply in the center of the country. Missouri was struggling to determine its stance on slavery, even though the legislature had voted to remain in the Union. When a request for Union troops was issued, the governor instead rallied 50,000 troops to join Confederate forces. Union troops took control of the capital city and resisted any attempts of Confederate control. The closest fighting involved exchanged cannon fire with troops being led by former Missouri Governor Sterling Price. The effects of the Civil War in Missouri would leave a feeling of resentment on both sides. (More Missouri Civil War history can be found here.)
In Jefferson City, the stone structure that Charles Crump had constructed was being used as a hotel. A business associate, who had leased the upper floors, received plenty of business from travelers along the river. This lodging option started as the Missouri Hotel but would see a name change to the Union Hotel, in reference to the owners Civil War sentiments.
Bringing Peace Back to Capital City
It took until 1875 for the legislature to revise the Missouri constitution. Once this was completed, it allowed the citizens to move past the economically stifling war. New industries would blossom, including shoe manufacturing and printing. The influx of settlers passing into the west would provide much-needed revenue for local businesses. The heyday of river travel was coming to an end, as more people began traveling by rail. The Lohman building closed up shop to retail customers and was turned into a warehouse.
Just as things seemed to be returning to a state of normalcy, the idea of moving the state capital once again rose its ugly head. In 1896, the city of Sedalia attempted to win this favor but was voted down by the citizens of Missouri. After the turn of the century, the business of state government became the dominating tone of Jefferson City. The storied history of Jefferson Landing would see the Lohman warehouse converted into the Tweedie Shoe Company.
It would take until the 1960s before the state would acquire the property. Sitting nearby the capital, this historic structure had been an important piece of the storied history of the surrounding area. Our tour of this FREE attraction, allowed us a look back at life in a simpler time. We can imagine stepping off of a riverboat, and stopping in the store for supplies, before heading off to wherever our travels would lead us. On the day of our visit, we noticed a surprisingly large number of people at the site. We would learn that the local Amtrak stop is located across the street from Lohman’s Landing. This is certainly something to keep in mind for future visits. With shopping and dining, as well as the capitol building, so close by, it would make a perfect train day trip. Have you ever taken an Amtrak trip?
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Rutgers University professor details how women, girls inspired a nation to desegregate schools
Sixty years ago, nine black students were escorted by federal troops into Little Rock, Arkansas' Central High School to integrate the school. Ernest Green, the first African American to graduate from Central, spoke to the AP about his experience.
Dr. Rachel Devlin explains that her 2018 book "changes the lens" on a vital piece of American history.
Devlin, a Rutgers University professor, recently spoke about “A Girl Stands at the Door: The Generation of Young Women who Desegregated America's Schools,” at the Scotch Plains Public Library.
"It is the story of the girls and young women who filed lawsuits in the late 1940s, lawsuits that historians had not uncovered, that pushed the NAACP to take Brown v. Board of Education to the Supreme Court many, many years before they thought they were ready," said Devlin, who teaches history with a focus on modern United States, women's and gender history.
Devlin provided insight into the thinking of these young leaders.
"You had to believe that desegregation was an urgent moral crisis on the one hand, and you had to believe also that it was possible to desegregate schools," Devlin said. "You had to have a social imagination that could see the possibility of putting black and white students together in very intimate space."
Girls and young women had this vision, Devlin asserted. Their mindset was further developed by advice from their mothers and from females who were a bit older than they were.
One of the pioneers in this effort, Lucile Bluford, applied 11 times to prestigious University of Missouri School of Journalism, starting in 1939. She eventually was barred from the campus, and the University shut down their School of Journalism for three years rather than admit her.
Ada Lois Sipuel brought the cause forward further. She applied to University of Oklahoma graduate school in 1946. She kept approaching the school and raised funds all throughout Oklahoma.
"She went so many times, that the University of Oklahoma eventually got so acclimated to her being there, and it began to seem natural, and it became to even seem inevitable, that she would be there, and that other African-American students would be there," remarked Devlin.
Sipuel made headlines. Her popularity encouraged Thurgood Marshall to talk about school desegregation, and to reference her case.
Inspired by Sipuel, in 1947 and 1948, girls all over the country began to walk up to historically white high and junior high schools, and simply attempt to enroll.
Marguerite Carr was 14 years old in 1947, when she tried to desegregate Eliot Junior High in Washington D.C.
When Carr arrived at the school to present her case, the principal came out, and said to her, "You don't want to go to this school."
Carr recalled her response: "I was raised correctly, I knew how to behave, and so I smiled nicely, and said, "Yes, I do want to go to this school.'"
The Brown v. Board of Education ruling in 1954, was spurred on by the advocacy of many women and girls in the years leading up to it, Devlin's research found. After Brown v. Board of Education was decided, the trend continued that there were many more girls than boys who desegregated public schools.
Desegregation was often a gradual process, starting with a few individuals, mostly girls, going into the white schools, said Devlin. At first, said Devlin, "Most administrators and school officials (at historically white schools) really believed that the blacks wouldn't make it".
"All of these women believed they were doing something important, not just for (their communities), but for the nation," Devlin reflected. "They saw the future. They saw a different future. They had a real sense of what they were doing for history."
To them, school desegregation was "the next step," Devlin added.
We all can learn from the qualities, courage, and stories of these young women and girls, Devlin believes.
Devlin's book got its title from the words of Charles Houston, a lead lawyer for the NAACP, who in the 1940s closed the argument of one case by proclaiming, "A girl stands at the door, and a generation waits behind".
For more information, go to www.agirlstandsatthedoor.com.
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|
Rutgers University professor details how women, girls inspired a nation to desegregate schools
Sixty years ago, nine black students were escorted by federal troops into Little Rock, Arkansas' Central High School to integrate the school. Ernest Green, the first African American to graduate from Central, spoke to the AP about his experience.
Dr. Rachel Devlin explains that her 2018 book "changes the lens" on a vital piece of American history.
Devlin, a Rutgers University professor, recently spoke about “A Girl Stands at the Door: The Generation of Young Women who Desegregated America's Schools,” at the Scotch Plains Public Library.
"It is the story of the girls and young women who filed lawsuits in the late 1940s, lawsuits that historians had not uncovered, that pushed the NAACP to take Brown v. Board of Education to the Supreme Court many, many years before they thought they were ready," said Devlin, who teaches history with a focus on modern United States, women's and gender history.
Devlin provided insight into the thinking of these young leaders.
"You had to believe that desegregation was an urgent moral crisis on the one hand, and you had to believe also that it was possible to desegregate schools," Devlin said. "You had to have a social imagination that could see the possibility of putting black and white students together in very intimate space."
Girls and young women had this vision, Devlin asserted. Their mindset was further developed by advice from their mothers and from females who were a bit older than they were.
One of the pioneers in this effort, Lucile Bluford, applied 11 times to prestigious University of Missouri School of Journalism, starting in 1939. She eventually was barred from the campus, and the University shut down their School of Journalism for three years rather than admit her.
Ada Lois Sipuel brought the cause forward further. She applied to University of Oklahoma graduate school in 1946. She kept approaching the school and raised funds all throughout Oklahoma.
"She went so many times, that the University of Oklahoma eventually got so acclimated to her being there, and it began to seem natural, and it became to even seem inevitable, that she would be there, and that other African-American students would be there," remarked Devlin.
Sipuel made headlines. Her popularity encouraged Thurgood Marshall to talk about school desegregation, and to reference her case.
Inspired by Sipuel, in 1947 and 1948, girls all over the country began to walk up to historically white high and junior high schools, and simply attempt to enroll.
Marguerite Carr was 14 years old in 1947, when she tried to desegregate Eliot Junior High in Washington D.C.
When Carr arrived at the school to present her case, the principal came out, and said to her, "You don't want to go to this school."
Carr recalled her response: "I was raised correctly, I knew how to behave, and so I smiled nicely, and said, "Yes, I do want to go to this school.'"
The Brown v. Board of Education ruling in 1954, was spurred on by the advocacy of many women and girls in the years leading up to it, Devlin's research found. After Brown v. Board of Education was decided, the trend continued that there were many more girls than boys who desegregated public schools.
Desegregation was often a gradual process, starting with a few individuals, mostly girls, going into the white schools, said Devlin. At first, said Devlin, "Most administrators and school officials (at historically white schools) really believed that the blacks wouldn't make it".
"All of these women believed they were doing something important, not just for (their communities), but for the nation," Devlin reflected. "They saw the future. They saw a different future. They had a real sense of what they were doing for history."
To them, school desegregation was "the next step," Devlin added.
We all can learn from the qualities, courage, and stories of these young women and girls, Devlin believes.
Devlin's book got its title from the words of Charles Houston, a lead lawyer for the NAACP, who in the 1940s closed the argument of one case by proclaiming, "A girl stands at the door, and a generation waits behind".
For more information, go to www.agirlstandsatthedoor.com.
| 945
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Imprisonment is a lack of any kind of freedom. In Charles Dickens’s novel Great Expectations there are many examples of imprisonment. Dickens created the characters Estella, Herbert, and Molly with a lack of freedom. These three characters were imprisoned because they could not make their own choices.
Estella had very little freedom. Miss Havisham controlled every aspect of her life. She was forced to carry out Miss Havisham’s revenge on men, and she tortured Pip only because she had been raised and told to do so. The first time they met, Miss Havisham told her to break Pip’s heart and Estella relentlessly picked on him. She made Pip cry because he felt so bad about being common, and he devoted his life to becoming a gentleman because of her influence. Miss Havisham made Estella go to a distant boarding school. She probably did this just so that Pip couldn’t see her. As soon as she got back, Miss Havisham forced her to live with Mrs. Brandley, a complete stranger, so that she would become acquainted with other people. Pip had to escort Estella most of the time when she traveled. She had to give her purse to Pip and he had to do everything that Miss Havisham said to do. Estella could make very few choices for herself because she was Miss Havisham’s puppet.Order now
Herbert was a character who was imprisoned. The counting house was a prison for him. He worked there for next to nothing and he was in debt most of the time. By working at the counting house, he couldn’t fulfill his dream of having his own shipping company. Because of his lack of financial freedom, he could not start his own business no matter how much he saved. Herbert was imprisoned by his easy nature and pride. Pip’s lavish habits led Herbert into debt. Because Pip lived with him, he spent money on things that he knew he could not afford. This unnecessary spending drove Herbert further into debt. Pip would have gladly taken on some of the extra expenses caused by his living there, but he knew that Herbert was too proud which was why he bought Herbert’s partnership secretly. Herbert did not get to choose his own bride. It was arranged that he and his siblings, except the baby, were to be married. Herbert was engaged to Clara and it didn’t matter if he wanted to marry her or not. Herbert was imprisoned by his finances, pride, and arranged marriage.
Molly had no freedom. Her child was taken by Mr. Jaggers as payment for her defense in the trial. She did not have much choice because if she didn’t give Estella to Jaggers she would be convicted. That meant that worse things could happen to Estella and she would go to jail. Jaggers said ” he had often seen children solemnly tried at a criminal bar, where they were held up to be seen; put the case that he habitually knew of their being imprisoned, whipped, transported, neglected, and cast out here was one pretty little child out of the whole heap that could be saved’ ” (879). After the trial was over she began working at his house. She had to be his maid and was treated like a slave. Whenever Molly was in the same room as he was she would stare at him the whole time. She was frightened of Jaggers and spoke very softly most of the time. He constantly threatened to reveal her secret by making her show her wrists to people. He was blackmailing her by doing this. Molly was imprisoned by Mr. Jaggers.
Estella, Molly, and Herbert were all imprisoned because there were many times that they were not allowed to make their own choices. They did not have the freedom most people have. Everyone should have the freedom to do as they choose. Because they could not do as they wished, these characters often elicited sympathy from the reader. Dickens used sympathy many times and in many different ways in the novel Great Expectations.
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] | 3
|
Imprisonment is a lack of any kind of freedom. In Charles Dickens’s novel Great Expectations there are many examples of imprisonment. Dickens created the characters Estella, Herbert, and Molly with a lack of freedom. These three characters were imprisoned because they could not make their own choices.
Estella had very little freedom. Miss Havisham controlled every aspect of her life. She was forced to carry out Miss Havisham’s revenge on men, and she tortured Pip only because she had been raised and told to do so. The first time they met, Miss Havisham told her to break Pip’s heart and Estella relentlessly picked on him. She made Pip cry because he felt so bad about being common, and he devoted his life to becoming a gentleman because of her influence. Miss Havisham made Estella go to a distant boarding school. She probably did this just so that Pip couldn’t see her. As soon as she got back, Miss Havisham forced her to live with Mrs. Brandley, a complete stranger, so that she would become acquainted with other people. Pip had to escort Estella most of the time when she traveled. She had to give her purse to Pip and he had to do everything that Miss Havisham said to do. Estella could make very few choices for herself because she was Miss Havisham’s puppet.Order now
Herbert was a character who was imprisoned. The counting house was a prison for him. He worked there for next to nothing and he was in debt most of the time. By working at the counting house, he couldn’t fulfill his dream of having his own shipping company. Because of his lack of financial freedom, he could not start his own business no matter how much he saved. Herbert was imprisoned by his easy nature and pride. Pip’s lavish habits led Herbert into debt. Because Pip lived with him, he spent money on things that he knew he could not afford. This unnecessary spending drove Herbert further into debt. Pip would have gladly taken on some of the extra expenses caused by his living there, but he knew that Herbert was too proud which was why he bought Herbert’s partnership secretly. Herbert did not get to choose his own bride. It was arranged that he and his siblings, except the baby, were to be married. Herbert was engaged to Clara and it didn’t matter if he wanted to marry her or not. Herbert was imprisoned by his finances, pride, and arranged marriage.
Molly had no freedom. Her child was taken by Mr. Jaggers as payment for her defense in the trial. She did not have much choice because if she didn’t give Estella to Jaggers she would be convicted. That meant that worse things could happen to Estella and she would go to jail. Jaggers said ” he had often seen children solemnly tried at a criminal bar, where they were held up to be seen; put the case that he habitually knew of their being imprisoned, whipped, transported, neglected, and cast out here was one pretty little child out of the whole heap that could be saved’ ” (879). After the trial was over she began working at his house. She had to be his maid and was treated like a slave. Whenever Molly was in the same room as he was she would stare at him the whole time. She was frightened of Jaggers and spoke very softly most of the time. He constantly threatened to reveal her secret by making her show her wrists to people. He was blackmailing her by doing this. Molly was imprisoned by Mr. Jaggers.
Estella, Molly, and Herbert were all imprisoned because there were many times that they were not allowed to make their own choices. They did not have the freedom most people have. Everyone should have the freedom to do as they choose. Because they could not do as they wished, these characters often elicited sympathy from the reader. Dickens used sympathy many times and in many different ways in the novel Great Expectations.
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ENGLISH
| 1
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A professional and experienced software developer with amateur writing.
C. Adlai, Software Developer, B.E (Bachelor of Engineering), California, USA
Answered Oct 09, 2019
The correct answer to this question is the Battle of Puebla. This battle occurred on May 5, 1862. It took place during the Second French intervention in Mexico happened near Mexico's Puebla City. During this battle, Mexico had less equipment and fewer people, but they were still able to become victorious. In the long run, that was the boost they needed for their morality.
The Battle of Puebla is still important today, for it is why Cinco de Mayo is celebrated once every year. The holiday itself happens on May 5, which is the same date as the battle. Other countries recognize the landmark win for Mexico, which is why Cinco de Mayo is celebrated all over the world.
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A professional and experienced software developer with amateur writing.
C. Adlai, Software Developer, B.E (Bachelor of Engineering), California, USA
Answered Oct 09, 2019
The correct answer to this question is the Battle of Puebla. This battle occurred on May 5, 1862. It took place during the Second French intervention in Mexico happened near Mexico's Puebla City. During this battle, Mexico had less equipment and fewer people, but they were still able to become victorious. In the long run, that was the boost they needed for their morality.
The Battle of Puebla is still important today, for it is why Cinco de Mayo is celebrated once every year. The holiday itself happens on May 5, which is the same date as the battle. Other countries recognize the landmark win for Mexico, which is why Cinco de Mayo is celebrated all over the world.
| 192
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Eden or more properly (the garden located in Eden) was Yahweh’s habitation on the earth. It was not man’s garden, although Adam was a permanent guest in the garden. But keep in mind that the garden was God’s dwelling or tabernacle on earth. And where God dwells his family also dwells.
If you consider the ancient near east you will likely conjure up images of vast deserts, arid climates, limited water and above average temperatures. And I suspect that is not far off the mark. Life was difficult; it was a struggle to find food, water and other necessities to sustain life. While much of the area was like this it also had areas that were well watered from the two great rivers the Tigris and Euphrates which flowed south emptying into the Persian Gulf.
If one were to consider the beliefs of polytheistic religions contemporaneous to the authorship of Genesis there was a belief that the gods would not have had a difficult life. Rather they inhabited a place where there was no lack of provision. Food, water and every provision necessary would have been plentiful. The climate would have been desirable and life for the gods would be without distress. Such places would include a garden as well as a mountain.
The author(s) of the Genesis account shared this understanding as Eden is pictured as a lush garden where life was pleasant, fellowship was sweet and suffering was non-existent. Eden also provided the headwaters of four rivers and within the boundaries of Eden was a mountain. In the past I used to think of the garden as something we might find at a wealthy persons estate, perhaps a few acres in size. But recently I believe that I grossly underestimated the gardens vast diversity. For instance consider these three points:
- The Lord God made all sorts of trees grow up from the ground—trees that were beautiful and that produced delicious fruit.
If we consider the vast differences of trees in the earth – they have unique demands for soil, water, temperature, amounts of sunlight, etc. It seems unlikely these diverse requirements could be accommodated with a few acres.
- Second, a river flowed from the land of Eden, watering the garden and then dividing into four branches. Gen. 2:10
The four branches (Pishon, Gihon, Tigris, Euphrates) which had their source in the garden are not insignificant rivers. So there must have been a vast supply of fresh water within the garden realm flowing outward.
- Lastly, the garden of Eden was the geographical region hosting the mountain of God. From Ezekiel 28 consider these words:
You were in Eden, the garden of God……
I ordained and anointed you as the mighty angelic guardian.
You had access to the holy mountain of God
and walked among the stones of fire.
If you have a working knowledge of the Old Testament you will likely recall other passages where God is pictured as dwelling on a mountain or speaking from a mountain. I specifically referenced the Ezekiel passage above since it clearly links Eden to the mountain of God.
I hope you can see that the garden of God was vast and expansive, filled with trees of every kind and conditions to support that vegetation, a mountain(1) which was the Lord’s abode and vast amounts of water likely flowing from this mountain to water the earth.
And Lot lifted his eyes and saw that the Jordan Valley was well watered everywhere like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt, in the direction of Zoar.
The other thing to note about the garden of Eden is that it was not the earth and the earth was not the garden. This may seem self evident but let us consider the implications. Adam was created before God planted the garden in Eden. In other words he was in the world and Yahweh moved him into the garden after he planted it. Further, Adam was told to fill the earth and subdue it. He was not to fill and subdue Eden (that was already under God’s domain). Rather, he was to go forth and make the rest of the earth resemble Eden. Let me say it another way, Eden was the model or template and Adams job (as Yahweh’s representative) was to replicate Eden across the earth.
And God blessed them. And God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over every living thing that moves on the earth.”
…then the Lord God formed the man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living creature. 8 And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden, in the east, and there he put the man whom he had formed.
Up to this point we have shown that God had a family before creating the earth. His dwelling on earth was a desirable place where he lived with his human and divine family. Adam’s responsibility was to multiply and bring the reality of Eden to the rest of the earth.
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Eden or more properly (the garden located in Eden) was Yahweh’s habitation on the earth. It was not man’s garden, although Adam was a permanent guest in the garden. But keep in mind that the garden was God’s dwelling or tabernacle on earth. And where God dwells his family also dwells.
If you consider the ancient near east you will likely conjure up images of vast deserts, arid climates, limited water and above average temperatures. And I suspect that is not far off the mark. Life was difficult; it was a struggle to find food, water and other necessities to sustain life. While much of the area was like this it also had areas that were well watered from the two great rivers the Tigris and Euphrates which flowed south emptying into the Persian Gulf.
If one were to consider the beliefs of polytheistic religions contemporaneous to the authorship of Genesis there was a belief that the gods would not have had a difficult life. Rather they inhabited a place where there was no lack of provision. Food, water and every provision necessary would have been plentiful. The climate would have been desirable and life for the gods would be without distress. Such places would include a garden as well as a mountain.
The author(s) of the Genesis account shared this understanding as Eden is pictured as a lush garden where life was pleasant, fellowship was sweet and suffering was non-existent. Eden also provided the headwaters of four rivers and within the boundaries of Eden was a mountain. In the past I used to think of the garden as something we might find at a wealthy persons estate, perhaps a few acres in size. But recently I believe that I grossly underestimated the gardens vast diversity. For instance consider these three points:
- The Lord God made all sorts of trees grow up from the ground—trees that were beautiful and that produced delicious fruit.
If we consider the vast differences of trees in the earth – they have unique demands for soil, water, temperature, amounts of sunlight, etc. It seems unlikely these diverse requirements could be accommodated with a few acres.
- Second, a river flowed from the land of Eden, watering the garden and then dividing into four branches. Gen. 2:10
The four branches (Pishon, Gihon, Tigris, Euphrates) which had their source in the garden are not insignificant rivers. So there must have been a vast supply of fresh water within the garden realm flowing outward.
- Lastly, the garden of Eden was the geographical region hosting the mountain of God. From Ezekiel 28 consider these words:
You were in Eden, the garden of God……
I ordained and anointed you as the mighty angelic guardian.
You had access to the holy mountain of God
and walked among the stones of fire.
If you have a working knowledge of the Old Testament you will likely recall other passages where God is pictured as dwelling on a mountain or speaking from a mountain. I specifically referenced the Ezekiel passage above since it clearly links Eden to the mountain of God.
I hope you can see that the garden of God was vast and expansive, filled with trees of every kind and conditions to support that vegetation, a mountain(1) which was the Lord’s abode and vast amounts of water likely flowing from this mountain to water the earth.
And Lot lifted his eyes and saw that the Jordan Valley was well watered everywhere like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt, in the direction of Zoar.
The other thing to note about the garden of Eden is that it was not the earth and the earth was not the garden. This may seem self evident but let us consider the implications. Adam was created before God planted the garden in Eden. In other words he was in the world and Yahweh moved him into the garden after he planted it. Further, Adam was told to fill the earth and subdue it. He was not to fill and subdue Eden (that was already under God’s domain). Rather, he was to go forth and make the rest of the earth resemble Eden. Let me say it another way, Eden was the model or template and Adams job (as Yahweh’s representative) was to replicate Eden across the earth.
And God blessed them. And God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over every living thing that moves on the earth.”
…then the Lord God formed the man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living creature. 8 And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden, in the east, and there he put the man whom he had formed.
Up to this point we have shown that God had a family before creating the earth. His dwelling on earth was a desirable place where he lived with his human and divine family. Adam’s responsibility was to multiply and bring the reality of Eden to the rest of the earth.
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Contrary to popular beliefs, Egyptian tombs, including the Great Pyramids, were not built by slaves but by workers employed by the government. When Egyptians began entombing pharaohs in the Valley of the Kings, near Luxor, they built a town about two miles away for the tomb builders and their families. The town, originally named The Place of the Truth, was founded in about 1500 B.C. and lasted until interment in the Valley of the Kings ended about 400 years later. At its peak, the town included more than 100 four or five-room stone houses.
At least some of the workers and their wives were literate. Letters written on ostraca and papyrus indicate the work schedule consisted of eight days on and two days off. Workers were given additional days off for festivals and when they were ill or, on at least one occasion, drunk. During their time off, the workers constructed chapels and tombs for themselves and their families. The government provided the houses, medical care and laundry services. Wages consisted of food, firewood and other supplies the workers needed, with occasional bonuses of items for religious celebrations and materials for their eventual mummification. The painters, stone masons, carpenters and sculptors received about three times the wages of a field hand. When the skilled workers were dissatisfied with their wages and benefits under Pharaoh Ramses III, they went on strike until their demands were satisfied.
Deir el-Medina, a UNESCO World Heritage site, includes some of the most finely decorated tombs in Egypt. It also provides an example of a government creating middle class jobs 3500 years ago.
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Contrary to popular beliefs, Egyptian tombs, including the Great Pyramids, were not built by slaves but by workers employed by the government. When Egyptians began entombing pharaohs in the Valley of the Kings, near Luxor, they built a town about two miles away for the tomb builders and their families. The town, originally named The Place of the Truth, was founded in about 1500 B.C. and lasted until interment in the Valley of the Kings ended about 400 years later. At its peak, the town included more than 100 four or five-room stone houses.
At least some of the workers and their wives were literate. Letters written on ostraca and papyrus indicate the work schedule consisted of eight days on and two days off. Workers were given additional days off for festivals and when they were ill or, on at least one occasion, drunk. During their time off, the workers constructed chapels and tombs for themselves and their families. The government provided the houses, medical care and laundry services. Wages consisted of food, firewood and other supplies the workers needed, with occasional bonuses of items for religious celebrations and materials for their eventual mummification. The painters, stone masons, carpenters and sculptors received about three times the wages of a field hand. When the skilled workers were dissatisfied with their wages and benefits under Pharaoh Ramses III, they went on strike until their demands were satisfied.
Deir el-Medina, a UNESCO World Heritage site, includes some of the most finely decorated tombs in Egypt. It also provides an example of a government creating middle class jobs 3500 years ago.
| 347
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
The idea of providing education for slaves was highly immoral and a controversial idea for the white slave-owners, because without slaves, their revenues would shrink dramatically, and eventually, antislavery would occur. He shows the relationships between religion and slavery and education and freedom, one having an effect on the other to improve his….
There are no apparent laws that prohibit or limit opportunities for blacks in our society today, yet there is a sense that all things are not fair and equal. Before this event, Douglass had dedicated his life in the South educating other slaves because he believed that all men are equal, no matter what the slave-owners said.
In order to keep slavery as a stable institution, it was important for many of the slave owners in the text to make educating a slave something that could be punished.
He also notes that he feels every person has a right to know when he or she came into the world. Auld never again taught Douglass, again. Douglass described his mistress as "a woman of the kindest heart and finest feelings" Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, pg.
Unfortunately, these lessons did not last long, for Sophia Auld's husband discovered Sophia's intentions. I think this quotation means that a person has to be determined and focused, and the person has to push him- or herself to get things accomplished in life.
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] | 2
|
The idea of providing education for slaves was highly immoral and a controversial idea for the white slave-owners, because without slaves, their revenues would shrink dramatically, and eventually, antislavery would occur. He shows the relationships between religion and slavery and education and freedom, one having an effect on the other to improve his….
There are no apparent laws that prohibit or limit opportunities for blacks in our society today, yet there is a sense that all things are not fair and equal. Before this event, Douglass had dedicated his life in the South educating other slaves because he believed that all men are equal, no matter what the slave-owners said.
In order to keep slavery as a stable institution, it was important for many of the slave owners in the text to make educating a slave something that could be punished.
He also notes that he feels every person has a right to know when he or she came into the world. Auld never again taught Douglass, again. Douglass described his mistress as "a woman of the kindest heart and finest feelings" Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, pg.
Unfortunately, these lessons did not last long, for Sophia Auld's husband discovered Sophia's intentions. I think this quotation means that a person has to be determined and focused, and the person has to push him- or herself to get things accomplished in life.
| 276
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Lewis and Clark Expedition is an important part of our history. This informational text talks about the Lewis and Clark Expedition. It talks about how the travelers had a hard time and how they went through the land. There are three important parts in the Lewis and Clark Expedition the important people, the problems they faced, the route they took.
The Important People
Meriwether Lewis was born on August 18th, 1774 in Albemarle County, Virginia. After his father died 1779, he went to his mother and step-father’s house. Lewis had no education until the age of 13, but when he was in Georgia he enhanced his skills as a hunter and outdoorsman. When he was young he started loving the outdoors then his mother taught him how to gather wild herbs after he started loving the outdoors. He was also interested in Natural History. When Meriweather grew up he became an explorer, he led the Corps of Discovery on an expedition, Lewis died on Oct 11,1809.
William Clark was born on August 1, 1770, in Caroline County, Virginia. When he turned to the age of 33, Meriwether Lewis assigned Clark to share leadership with him for the Corps of Discovery. Clark had to help Lewis lead the Corps of Discovery through the West. They were trying to find the Pacific Ocean, Clark died on Sep 1,1838
The Problems they faced
One of the problems they faced is very bad weather, encounters with the natives, and animals and insects. Some of the the bad weather is rain storms, hail storms, and snow storms.
Some of the encounters with the natives are the blackfeet indians. Some of the animals and insects are grizzly bears ( Meriwether Lewis was almost killed by a grizzly bear ) the Corps of Discovery faced about 40 bears. Mosquitoes were also really bad the travelers had a very hard time with mosquitoes.
The Route they took
The route that Lewis and Clark took was from Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington The route travels through 12 states. The route was 3,700 miles long. The Native Americans helped the travelers along the way by trading with with them and they gave them supplies like food, and water. This expedition was very difficult because the Corps of Discovery had to go through the Mississippi river, witch caused them to get stuck in the mud of the Mississippi.
In summary, this paper was about the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the important people involved, the problems they faced and, the route that they took. Would you have been brave enough to go on the expedition?
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The Lewis and Clark Expedition is an important part of our history. This informational text talks about the Lewis and Clark Expedition. It talks about how the travelers had a hard time and how they went through the land. There are three important parts in the Lewis and Clark Expedition the important people, the problems they faced, the route they took.
The Important People
Meriwether Lewis was born on August 18th, 1774 in Albemarle County, Virginia. After his father died 1779, he went to his mother and step-father’s house. Lewis had no education until the age of 13, but when he was in Georgia he enhanced his skills as a hunter and outdoorsman. When he was young he started loving the outdoors then his mother taught him how to gather wild herbs after he started loving the outdoors. He was also interested in Natural History. When Meriweather grew up he became an explorer, he led the Corps of Discovery on an expedition, Lewis died on Oct 11,1809.
William Clark was born on August 1, 1770, in Caroline County, Virginia. When he turned to the age of 33, Meriwether Lewis assigned Clark to share leadership with him for the Corps of Discovery. Clark had to help Lewis lead the Corps of Discovery through the West. They were trying to find the Pacific Ocean, Clark died on Sep 1,1838
The Problems they faced
One of the problems they faced is very bad weather, encounters with the natives, and animals and insects. Some of the the bad weather is rain storms, hail storms, and snow storms.
Some of the encounters with the natives are the blackfeet indians. Some of the animals and insects are grizzly bears ( Meriwether Lewis was almost killed by a grizzly bear ) the Corps of Discovery faced about 40 bears. Mosquitoes were also really bad the travelers had a very hard time with mosquitoes.
The Route they took
The route that Lewis and Clark took was from Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington The route travels through 12 states. The route was 3,700 miles long. The Native Americans helped the travelers along the way by trading with with them and they gave them supplies like food, and water. This expedition was very difficult because the Corps of Discovery had to go through the Mississippi river, witch caused them to get stuck in the mud of the Mississippi.
In summary, this paper was about the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the important people involved, the problems they faced and, the route that they took. Would you have been brave enough to go on the expedition?
| 566
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Between 1880 and 1920, about 24 million immigrants arrived in the United States. These were known as the “New Immigrants” and came mostly from China, Japan, and Southern and Eastern Europe. Reasons people were fleeing their homelands were low wages, unemployment, disease, forced military conscription, and religious persecution. They came over to America and settled in cities in the Northeast or Chicago. They then created small ethnic communities and maintained their culture by opening specialty grocery stores, restaurants, churches, synagogues, and schools. The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1882 preventing the immigration of Chinese labors in the United States for 10 years.
Open from 1892 to 1954, over 12 million immigrants entered the United States through Ellis Island. The Island was originally 3.3 acres but expanded to 27.5 acres from landfill. When immigrants arrived they would all go through an inspection process. Doctors would scan every immigrant for physical ailments in the “six second physicals.” 2% of the total immigrants that arrived were excluded from entry because they were diagnosed with a contagious disease or an inspector thought the immigrant was going to become a public charge or an illegal contract laborer.
© 2015 Alexis Gomez All rights reserved | ShadowFox
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Between 1880 and 1920, about 24 million immigrants arrived in the United States. These were known as the “New Immigrants” and came mostly from China, Japan, and Southern and Eastern Europe. Reasons people were fleeing their homelands were low wages, unemployment, disease, forced military conscription, and religious persecution. They came over to America and settled in cities in the Northeast or Chicago. They then created small ethnic communities and maintained their culture by opening specialty grocery stores, restaurants, churches, synagogues, and schools. The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1882 preventing the immigration of Chinese labors in the United States for 10 years.
Open from 1892 to 1954, over 12 million immigrants entered the United States through Ellis Island. The Island was originally 3.3 acres but expanded to 27.5 acres from landfill. When immigrants arrived they would all go through an inspection process. Doctors would scan every immigrant for physical ailments in the “six second physicals.” 2% of the total immigrants that arrived were excluded from entry because they were diagnosed with a contagious disease or an inspector thought the immigrant was going to become a public charge or an illegal contract laborer.
© 2015 Alexis Gomez All rights reserved | ShadowFox
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1. "Class Divided" Experiment
Following the murder of civil rights leader Martin Luther King in 1998, a third-grade teacher attempted to discuss discrimination issues, racism, and prejudice with her students. She felt that the discussion wasn't getting through to her students, so she decided to try something more practical. Seeing as the students in her class did not normally interact with members of a minority in their town, she devised a two-day "blue eyes/brown eyes" exercise to highlight the unfairness of discrimination and racism.
On the first day, students with blue eyes were given preferential treatment, then on the second, students with brown eyes were given preferential treatment. The teacher found that students in the preferential groups on both days of the experiment performed more enthusiastically and answered questions more quickly when compared to their "discriminated against" classmates.
2. "Piano Stairs" Experiment
German automaker, Volkswagen, set up an initiative entitled "The Fun Theory". It set out to prove that people's behavior could be changed by making menial tasks enjoyable in some way. As part of the initiative, the company installed musical steps on the staircase of a subway station in Stockholm and observed if more people would take the healthier (and more fun) option rather than the escalator.
The study found that 66% more people used the stairs than usual on that day, which is a testament to the playfulness and inner child that's found within all of us. It showed that efforts to make cities more fun can actually make us all happier, fitter and healthier.
3. "Violinist in the Metro" Experiment
Violin virtuoso Joshua Bell is known around the world for his exceptional talent and $3.5 million Stradivarius violin, but Washington subway commuters didn't seem to be phased by his presence. On January 12th, 2007, Bell performed a free mini-concert at a subway station for 45 minutes, performing six classical pieces in all. Just six people stopped to listen to him for a while, with about 20 giving him money while walking on.
He managed to collect $32 in all, and no-one even applauded when he finished playing. People simply appeared to dismiss Bell as another busker, rather than recognize him as one of the best musicians in the world playing one of the most intricate pieces of music ever written. This experiment highlighted how setting and presentation make a huge difference in how we perceive something - Bell played a concert at Boston's Sydney Hall three days earlier, where seats were sold for $100 a pop.
4. "Smoke-Filled Room" Experiment
This experiment involved a group of people left in a room to fill out a questionnaire. Smoke was pumped under the door to mimic the effect of a fire in the next room. Although one would expect the members of the group to get up and leave the room quickly, that didn't actually happen, because their behavior was influenced by two actors who were instructed to behave as if they didn't care about the smoke.
The experiment found that 75% of participants reported the smoke almost immediately when they were alone in the room, however, this figure dropped to 10% when actors were in the room with them. In fact, nine out of ten participants kept on filling in their questionnaires. It is a great example of how the passivity of others can influence our decision-making during an emergency situation.
5. "Robbers' Cave" Experiment
Experimenters took two groups of 11 and 12-year-old boys to what they thought was a summer camp as part of this experiment. The two groups were separated from each other during the first week of the experiment, so they didn't know about each other or interact. This period allowed the boys within each group to bond with one another.
When the first week was up, the two groups were introduced to each other, and signs of hostility were apparent almost immediately. The experimenters inflamed things further by creating competition between the groups. As predicted, they became increasingly hostile and aggressive toward each other as the competition increased.
The third week involved experimenters creating conditions that required both groups to work together to solve a common problem. For instance, the boys in the two groups were given the impression that their drinking water had been cut off by an unknown third party, a problem that required teamwork to be resolved. By the end of the experiment, many inter-group friendships had blossomed, indicating that socialization in this manner is highly effective at reducing prejudice and discrimination.
6. Carlsberg Social Experiment
Danish brewery, Carlsberg, decided to have some fun with a few unsuspecting couples by filling a cinema with tough-looking, tattooed male bikers and leaving just two empty seats. While some of the couples decided to leave immediately, others plucked up the courage to go and sit in the midst of all the scary-looking men. The ones that did pluck up the courage were immediately greeted with cheers from the crowd, as well as a round of free Carlsberg beers. This experiment reminds us that we should never judge a book by its cover!
7. Car Crash Experiment
Back in 1974, two researchers named Loftus and Palmer respectively attempted to prove that the wording of questions had the ability to influence recall in their experiment's participants by twisting their memories of a specific event. Participants were shown slides of two cars getting into an accident and were asked to describe what they were seeing as if they were eyewitnesses at the scene. They were split into two groups, with each group being asked a question about speed using any one of a number of different verbs to describe the impact.
The verb used (either "smashed", "collided", "bumped", "hit" or "contacted") was shown to have an impact on how participants perceived the speed at which the accident happened. In fact, the average speed that was given depending on the verb used in the question was observed to be 40.8 mph for "smashed", 39.3 mph for "collided", 38.1 mph for "bumped", 34 mph for "hit" and 31.8 mph for "contacted". These results showed that eyewitness testimonies that are used as evidence after the commission of a crime can be biased depending on the questions that are asked.
8. Milgram Experiment
In 1961, psychologist Stanley Milgram designed an experiment to show the lengths that people would go to in order to obey an authority figure, even if the acts they were instructed to carry out were clearly going to cause harm to others. Participants were asked to play the role of a teacher and administer electric shocks to a learner (an actor was actually used for this role, and he was out of sight when the experiment was being conducted) every time he answered a question incorrectly.
The learner (or actor) was instructed to answer the questions incorrectly deliberately, and make it sound like he was in a great deal of pain each time a shock was administered. The intensity of pain (or pain faked by the actor) from the shocks being administered was increased with each incorrect answer, but participants continued to administer shocks when they were urged to by the authority figure (the experimenter). By the time the experiment was concluded, some 65% of participants administered what would have been lethal electric shocks.
Whether we like it or not, obedience to authority is ingrained in us all, and this experiment showed that ordinary people are likely to follow orders given out by an authority figure, even if it means killing an innocent human being.
9. "Marshmallow Test" Experiment
Delayed gratification refers to the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward in order to receive a greater reward at a later time. During the 1960s and 70s, a psychologist called Walter Mischel devised an experiment involving four to six-year-old children. They were placed in a room with a treat, such as a marshmallow, cookie or pretzel stick, and told that they would get a second treat as well as the first one presented to them as long as they could wait 15 minutes without eating it.
Michel observed the children behaving in a variety of ways, such as covering their eyes with their hands or turning around so that they can't see the treat, or kicking the table. Some of them just ate the treat as soon as the researchers left the room. Over 600 children participated in the experiment, with a minority of them eating the treat immediately, and one-third managing to defer gratification long enough to receive the second treat. Age was a major factor determining deferred gratification.
Follow-up studies conducted on the same participants showed that those who were able to wait longer for the larger reward tended to fare better in life, as was evidenced by their SAT scores, educational achievements, body mass index, and other measures.
10. False Consensus Experiment
The false consensus effect is the psychological notion that people tend to believe that the majority of others agree with their opinions and act in the same way as they do. Researchers asked college students whether they'd be willing to walk around their campus wearing a large sandwich board promoting a restaurant.
The students were then asked to estimate how many students would be willing to wear the board. Those that agreed to carry the sign believed that the majority of others would do the same as them, and those that refused also believed that the majority of others would do the same as them.
In other words, the students were strong in their individual beliefs that others would do the same as them, but the reality is that this is simply not true.
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1. "Class Divided" Experiment
Following the murder of civil rights leader Martin Luther King in 1998, a third-grade teacher attempted to discuss discrimination issues, racism, and prejudice with her students. She felt that the discussion wasn't getting through to her students, so she decided to try something more practical. Seeing as the students in her class did not normally interact with members of a minority in their town, she devised a two-day "blue eyes/brown eyes" exercise to highlight the unfairness of discrimination and racism.
On the first day, students with blue eyes were given preferential treatment, then on the second, students with brown eyes were given preferential treatment. The teacher found that students in the preferential groups on both days of the experiment performed more enthusiastically and answered questions more quickly when compared to their "discriminated against" classmates.
2. "Piano Stairs" Experiment
German automaker, Volkswagen, set up an initiative entitled "The Fun Theory". It set out to prove that people's behavior could be changed by making menial tasks enjoyable in some way. As part of the initiative, the company installed musical steps on the staircase of a subway station in Stockholm and observed if more people would take the healthier (and more fun) option rather than the escalator.
The study found that 66% more people used the stairs than usual on that day, which is a testament to the playfulness and inner child that's found within all of us. It showed that efforts to make cities more fun can actually make us all happier, fitter and healthier.
3. "Violinist in the Metro" Experiment
Violin virtuoso Joshua Bell is known around the world for his exceptional talent and $3.5 million Stradivarius violin, but Washington subway commuters didn't seem to be phased by his presence. On January 12th, 2007, Bell performed a free mini-concert at a subway station for 45 minutes, performing six classical pieces in all. Just six people stopped to listen to him for a while, with about 20 giving him money while walking on.
He managed to collect $32 in all, and no-one even applauded when he finished playing. People simply appeared to dismiss Bell as another busker, rather than recognize him as one of the best musicians in the world playing one of the most intricate pieces of music ever written. This experiment highlighted how setting and presentation make a huge difference in how we perceive something - Bell played a concert at Boston's Sydney Hall three days earlier, where seats were sold for $100 a pop.
4. "Smoke-Filled Room" Experiment
This experiment involved a group of people left in a room to fill out a questionnaire. Smoke was pumped under the door to mimic the effect of a fire in the next room. Although one would expect the members of the group to get up and leave the room quickly, that didn't actually happen, because their behavior was influenced by two actors who were instructed to behave as if they didn't care about the smoke.
The experiment found that 75% of participants reported the smoke almost immediately when they were alone in the room, however, this figure dropped to 10% when actors were in the room with them. In fact, nine out of ten participants kept on filling in their questionnaires. It is a great example of how the passivity of others can influence our decision-making during an emergency situation.
5. "Robbers' Cave" Experiment
Experimenters took two groups of 11 and 12-year-old boys to what they thought was a summer camp as part of this experiment. The two groups were separated from each other during the first week of the experiment, so they didn't know about each other or interact. This period allowed the boys within each group to bond with one another.
When the first week was up, the two groups were introduced to each other, and signs of hostility were apparent almost immediately. The experimenters inflamed things further by creating competition between the groups. As predicted, they became increasingly hostile and aggressive toward each other as the competition increased.
The third week involved experimenters creating conditions that required both groups to work together to solve a common problem. For instance, the boys in the two groups were given the impression that their drinking water had been cut off by an unknown third party, a problem that required teamwork to be resolved. By the end of the experiment, many inter-group friendships had blossomed, indicating that socialization in this manner is highly effective at reducing prejudice and discrimination.
6. Carlsberg Social Experiment
Danish brewery, Carlsberg, decided to have some fun with a few unsuspecting couples by filling a cinema with tough-looking, tattooed male bikers and leaving just two empty seats. While some of the couples decided to leave immediately, others plucked up the courage to go and sit in the midst of all the scary-looking men. The ones that did pluck up the courage were immediately greeted with cheers from the crowd, as well as a round of free Carlsberg beers. This experiment reminds us that we should never judge a book by its cover!
7. Car Crash Experiment
Back in 1974, two researchers named Loftus and Palmer respectively attempted to prove that the wording of questions had the ability to influence recall in their experiment's participants by twisting their memories of a specific event. Participants were shown slides of two cars getting into an accident and were asked to describe what they were seeing as if they were eyewitnesses at the scene. They were split into two groups, with each group being asked a question about speed using any one of a number of different verbs to describe the impact.
The verb used (either "smashed", "collided", "bumped", "hit" or "contacted") was shown to have an impact on how participants perceived the speed at which the accident happened. In fact, the average speed that was given depending on the verb used in the question was observed to be 40.8 mph for "smashed", 39.3 mph for "collided", 38.1 mph for "bumped", 34 mph for "hit" and 31.8 mph for "contacted". These results showed that eyewitness testimonies that are used as evidence after the commission of a crime can be biased depending on the questions that are asked.
8. Milgram Experiment
In 1961, psychologist Stanley Milgram designed an experiment to show the lengths that people would go to in order to obey an authority figure, even if the acts they were instructed to carry out were clearly going to cause harm to others. Participants were asked to play the role of a teacher and administer electric shocks to a learner (an actor was actually used for this role, and he was out of sight when the experiment was being conducted) every time he answered a question incorrectly.
The learner (or actor) was instructed to answer the questions incorrectly deliberately, and make it sound like he was in a great deal of pain each time a shock was administered. The intensity of pain (or pain faked by the actor) from the shocks being administered was increased with each incorrect answer, but participants continued to administer shocks when they were urged to by the authority figure (the experimenter). By the time the experiment was concluded, some 65% of participants administered what would have been lethal electric shocks.
Whether we like it or not, obedience to authority is ingrained in us all, and this experiment showed that ordinary people are likely to follow orders given out by an authority figure, even if it means killing an innocent human being.
9. "Marshmallow Test" Experiment
Delayed gratification refers to the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward in order to receive a greater reward at a later time. During the 1960s and 70s, a psychologist called Walter Mischel devised an experiment involving four to six-year-old children. They were placed in a room with a treat, such as a marshmallow, cookie or pretzel stick, and told that they would get a second treat as well as the first one presented to them as long as they could wait 15 minutes without eating it.
Michel observed the children behaving in a variety of ways, such as covering their eyes with their hands or turning around so that they can't see the treat, or kicking the table. Some of them just ate the treat as soon as the researchers left the room. Over 600 children participated in the experiment, with a minority of them eating the treat immediately, and one-third managing to defer gratification long enough to receive the second treat. Age was a major factor determining deferred gratification.
Follow-up studies conducted on the same participants showed that those who were able to wait longer for the larger reward tended to fare better in life, as was evidenced by their SAT scores, educational achievements, body mass index, and other measures.
10. False Consensus Experiment
The false consensus effect is the psychological notion that people tend to believe that the majority of others agree with their opinions and act in the same way as they do. Researchers asked college students whether they'd be willing to walk around their campus wearing a large sandwich board promoting a restaurant.
The students were then asked to estimate how many students would be willing to wear the board. Those that agreed to carry the sign believed that the majority of others would do the same as them, and those that refused also believed that the majority of others would do the same as them.
In other words, the students were strong in their individual beliefs that others would do the same as them, but the reality is that this is simply not true.
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Famous Executions at Tyburn
Tyburn Tree circa 1680
Did You Know What Marble Arch Used To Be?
What do you know about the Tyburn Tree? Imagine that it is a very hot and sunny summer afternoon. You are on the top deck of a London bus trundling its way down Oxford Street. As the bus then turns into the mass of traffic going around Marble Arch, I wonder if you will realise that you are travelling across the site of one of the most infamous places of execution in England? For that small area around Marble Arch used to be known by another name, a sinister name that still echoes down the years of history.
That place was Tyburn, and it was the home of the feared Tyburn Tree. For hundreds of years many traitors and criminals were publicly executed there, often in front of huge jeering crowds who had come for a good day’s entertainment and the chance of seeing some of the most notorious criminals of their day meet their grisly ends.
Women were also burned at the stake at Tyburn for crimes of treason, usually forging or filing coins, and if you think that burning at the stake was a medieval form of execution, you might be surprised to learn that Isabella Condon was burned at Tyburn for coining as late as 1779. Nowadays a stone plaque placed in the traffic island near Marble Arch marks the spot where the Tyburn Tree gallows used to stand.
First Person Executed At Tyburn
Tyburn gets its name from a stream of the same name or Teo Bourne that ran through the area on its way to join to the Thames. The stream is now completely covered over, and cannot be seen. The two main thoroughfares leading to the area used to be Tyburn Road and Tyburn Lane, and these roughly equate to what are now the prosperous London streets of Oxford Street and Park Lane.
The very first recorded execution at Tyburn took place in 1196. The man executed was called William Fitz Osbern, who had been the ringleader in trying to organise an uprising of the poor in London in 1196.
He was captured in the church of St Mary le Bow, and several days later taken to Tyburn where he was ‘first drawn asunder by horses, and then hanged on a gibbet with nine of his accomplices who refused to desert him’. Fitz Osbern was declared a martyr by his followers, who gathered daily at his place of execution until armed guards were posted to deter them.
It wasn’t until 1571 that the infamous Tyburn Tree was erected and it was a very unusual form of gallows. The Tyburn gallows were made up of a horizontal wooden triangle on three legs, and it was constructed so that several criminals could be hanged simultaneously. This was very useful in the case of mass executions, such as when twenty four convicted felons were hanged on the same day in June 1649.
The Tyburn Tree stood in the middle of the road, as thus positioned these gallows acted as a major warning and deterrent to any would-be traitor or criminal. The first person to be executed on the Tyburn Tree was a Roman Catholic called Dr John Story. Dr Story had been condemned to be hung, drawn and quartered for refusing to recognise Elizabeth I as queen of England, and was executed on 1st June 1571.
Tyburn and Speakers Corner
Sometimes even being already dead did not save you from Tyburn. On his restoration, King Charles II had the bodies of Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw dug up and hanged in January 1661 for the part they had played in the beheading of his father Charles I.
Speakers Corner in the north-eastern corner of Hyde Park is known as a place of democracy and free speech, and an Act of Parliament in 1872 ratified this space as an area for public speaking. However, the tradition of public speaking at Speakers Corner actually comes from the custom of the condemned prisoners at Tyburn giving speeches before they were executed.
Many of these speeches were directed at the administration of the day, and if the prisoner was a Catholic being executed for treason they would often open up a theological debate on the scaffold and attack the establishment of the Church of England.
The Tyburn gallows evolved into an arena for an open debate and discussion on the politics and religious issues of the day, and eventually this led to Speakers Corner being established as a place where politics and issues could be freely debated without any comeback from the authorities.
Going to the Gallows
Hanging days were huge public spectacles and were declared as public holidays for the working classes. The prisoners were taken from Newgate Prison, as the St Sepulchre bell, which was only pealed on hanging days, announced the event. They were then taken on a cart to Tyburn, accompanied by the prison chaplain and the hangman, and followed by a troop of soldiers and a posse of constables.
This cavalcade passed through Holborn, St Giles and then travelled down what is now Oxford Street to Tyburn. The procession would stop at taverns along the route so that the condemned could fortify themselves for their ordeal to come with a tot or two of hard liquor. It was not unusual for the prisoner to arrive at the scaffold totally drunk and incapable.
Money For Old Rope
If the condemned prisoner was wealthy they could pay to go to the gallows in a closed coach, and thus avoid the jeering crowds and the missiles that they would often throw at the prisoners.
Prisoners would often also wear their best clothes for their executions as this was their last opportunity to show them off. However, an executed prisoner’s clothes traditionally belonged to the hangman, so some prisoners chose to wear their oldest, most ragged clothes so that the executioner would not benefit.
After the execution had taken place, it was also the prerogative of the hangman to sell the rope by the inch, which gave rise to the old saying ‘money for old rope’. The crowd also believed that the bodies of recently executed criminals had some kind of healing properties, and people would pay the hangman to let them stroke the deceased’s hands or take a lock of their hair as a souvenir.
Executions as Public Spectacles
Huge crowds would gather around Tyburn to watch the executions; 200,000 were said to have attended the execution of highwayman Jack Sheppard in 1724 and Samuel Pepys recorded that there were between twelve and fourteen thousand excited spectators at the hanging of Colonel James Turner in January 1664.
Adding to the carnival-like atmosphere of hanging days, were the hawkers who would work their way through the crowds selling food, souvenirs and copies of the condemned’s final speech and confession (this in spite of the fact that they had not yet arrived at the scaffold).
The wealthy could remove themselves from this crush of people by paying for a seat in the stands that had been erected that were known as ‘Mother Procter’s Pew. A seat with a good view of the gallows was much sought after and people were prepared to pay a good deal of money for them. In fact, when the official site of execution for felons was moved from Tyburn to the privacy of Newgate Prison in 1759, the general populace was not at all happy at having their hanging day holidays curtailed.
Some of the prisoners who were executed were regarded as the celebrities of their age. The highwaymen especially were regarded in a romantic light by the ladies, and when Claude Duval was executed in April 1669 hordes of weeping and wailing women crowded around the gallows and then attended his lavish funeral afterwards. Claude Duval was a gallant Frenchman, who totally charmed and stole the hearts of the ladies that he robbed of their jewels.
He was reputed to have demanded a dance from one lady immediately after he had robbed her husband of £100. Another famous highwayman and burglar who hanged at Tyburn was Jack Sheppard.
He became the darling of the working people in London and a thorn in the side of the authorities, after he was captured five times and managed to escape an astonishing four times in 1724. Jack Sheppard was so popular that an autobiographical narrative, thought to have been ghost-written by Daniel Defoe, was sold at his execution.
Cheating Death on the Gallows
Another surprising fact is that some prisoners managed to survive being hanged at Tyburn. The prisoners would have the noose placed around their neck while they were still in the cart, and when all was ready the horses were whipped into pulling the carts away leaving the condemned dangling.
The drop was very short, and many would convulse for several minutes before they expired in agony. This was known as ‘dancing the Tyburn jig’ and sometimes the executioner and family and friends would tug on the prisoner’s legs to hasten their end.
On Christmas Eve 1705 John Smith dangled at the end of the rope for fifteen minutes while still alive. The crowd started to call for a reprieve and eventually Smith was cut down and carried to a nearby house where they managed to revive him.
In 1740, a teenager called William Duell was hanged for the rape and murder of Sarah Griffin. After he was cut down he was transported to the Surgeons’ Hall where his body was going to be dissected. However, it was noticed that he was showing signs of life and was revived. He was sent back to Newgate Prison and subsequently his sentence was commuted to transportation.
Do You Agree With Capital Punishment?
Historic Figures Executed at Tyburn
Many well-known historical figures were executed at Tyburn, including Roger Mortimer, Earl of March who was the lover of the English Queen Isabella and had rebelled against her husband Edward II, Perkin Warbeck who posed as one of the lost Princes in the Tower and was the figurehead of a rebellion against Henry VII,
Thomas Culpepper the lover of Queen Catherine Howard, Edmund Campion the Catholic martyr, and the last person to ever be hanged at Tyburn was John Austin on 3rd November 1783.
Mercifully, we no longer have the death penalty in the United Kingdom and the days of public executions being a spectacle and a ‘good day out’ are thankfully long gone.
But it pays to remember the horrors of places like Tyburn and all the poor souls who suffered there, so that we do ensure that public executions remain a thing of the past and we do not visit these cruelties as a punishment on any criminal now or in the future.
Questions & Answers
Was Dick Turpin, infamous highwayman, executed/hanged at Tyburn? Where is he buried?
Dick Turpin was hanged in York in 1739. He was buried in St George's parish graveyardHelpful 1
When was the last hanging for highway robbery carried out in England?
The last highwayman to be hanged in England was James Snooks in March 1802. He was executed on Boxmoor, which is near Hemel Hempstead. This location was chosen as it was the nearest public space to where he committed the crime, as was the custom of the time.
© 2010 CMHypno
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Famous Executions at Tyburn
Tyburn Tree circa 1680
Did You Know What Marble Arch Used To Be?
What do you know about the Tyburn Tree? Imagine that it is a very hot and sunny summer afternoon. You are on the top deck of a London bus trundling its way down Oxford Street. As the bus then turns into the mass of traffic going around Marble Arch, I wonder if you will realise that you are travelling across the site of one of the most infamous places of execution in England? For that small area around Marble Arch used to be known by another name, a sinister name that still echoes down the years of history.
That place was Tyburn, and it was the home of the feared Tyburn Tree. For hundreds of years many traitors and criminals were publicly executed there, often in front of huge jeering crowds who had come for a good day’s entertainment and the chance of seeing some of the most notorious criminals of their day meet their grisly ends.
Women were also burned at the stake at Tyburn for crimes of treason, usually forging or filing coins, and if you think that burning at the stake was a medieval form of execution, you might be surprised to learn that Isabella Condon was burned at Tyburn for coining as late as 1779. Nowadays a stone plaque placed in the traffic island near Marble Arch marks the spot where the Tyburn Tree gallows used to stand.
First Person Executed At Tyburn
Tyburn gets its name from a stream of the same name or Teo Bourne that ran through the area on its way to join to the Thames. The stream is now completely covered over, and cannot be seen. The two main thoroughfares leading to the area used to be Tyburn Road and Tyburn Lane, and these roughly equate to what are now the prosperous London streets of Oxford Street and Park Lane.
The very first recorded execution at Tyburn took place in 1196. The man executed was called William Fitz Osbern, who had been the ringleader in trying to organise an uprising of the poor in London in 1196.
He was captured in the church of St Mary le Bow, and several days later taken to Tyburn where he was ‘first drawn asunder by horses, and then hanged on a gibbet with nine of his accomplices who refused to desert him’. Fitz Osbern was declared a martyr by his followers, who gathered daily at his place of execution until armed guards were posted to deter them.
It wasn’t until 1571 that the infamous Tyburn Tree was erected and it was a very unusual form of gallows. The Tyburn gallows were made up of a horizontal wooden triangle on three legs, and it was constructed so that several criminals could be hanged simultaneously. This was very useful in the case of mass executions, such as when twenty four convicted felons were hanged on the same day in June 1649.
The Tyburn Tree stood in the middle of the road, as thus positioned these gallows acted as a major warning and deterrent to any would-be traitor or criminal. The first person to be executed on the Tyburn Tree was a Roman Catholic called Dr John Story. Dr Story had been condemned to be hung, drawn and quartered for refusing to recognise Elizabeth I as queen of England, and was executed on 1st June 1571.
Tyburn and Speakers Corner
Sometimes even being already dead did not save you from Tyburn. On his restoration, King Charles II had the bodies of Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw dug up and hanged in January 1661 for the part they had played in the beheading of his father Charles I.
Speakers Corner in the north-eastern corner of Hyde Park is known as a place of democracy and free speech, and an Act of Parliament in 1872 ratified this space as an area for public speaking. However, the tradition of public speaking at Speakers Corner actually comes from the custom of the condemned prisoners at Tyburn giving speeches before they were executed.
Many of these speeches were directed at the administration of the day, and if the prisoner was a Catholic being executed for treason they would often open up a theological debate on the scaffold and attack the establishment of the Church of England.
The Tyburn gallows evolved into an arena for an open debate and discussion on the politics and religious issues of the day, and eventually this led to Speakers Corner being established as a place where politics and issues could be freely debated without any comeback from the authorities.
Going to the Gallows
Hanging days were huge public spectacles and were declared as public holidays for the working classes. The prisoners were taken from Newgate Prison, as the St Sepulchre bell, which was only pealed on hanging days, announced the event. They were then taken on a cart to Tyburn, accompanied by the prison chaplain and the hangman, and followed by a troop of soldiers and a posse of constables.
This cavalcade passed through Holborn, St Giles and then travelled down what is now Oxford Street to Tyburn. The procession would stop at taverns along the route so that the condemned could fortify themselves for their ordeal to come with a tot or two of hard liquor. It was not unusual for the prisoner to arrive at the scaffold totally drunk and incapable.
Money For Old Rope
If the condemned prisoner was wealthy they could pay to go to the gallows in a closed coach, and thus avoid the jeering crowds and the missiles that they would often throw at the prisoners.
Prisoners would often also wear their best clothes for their executions as this was their last opportunity to show them off. However, an executed prisoner’s clothes traditionally belonged to the hangman, so some prisoners chose to wear their oldest, most ragged clothes so that the executioner would not benefit.
After the execution had taken place, it was also the prerogative of the hangman to sell the rope by the inch, which gave rise to the old saying ‘money for old rope’. The crowd also believed that the bodies of recently executed criminals had some kind of healing properties, and people would pay the hangman to let them stroke the deceased’s hands or take a lock of their hair as a souvenir.
Executions as Public Spectacles
Huge crowds would gather around Tyburn to watch the executions; 200,000 were said to have attended the execution of highwayman Jack Sheppard in 1724 and Samuel Pepys recorded that there were between twelve and fourteen thousand excited spectators at the hanging of Colonel James Turner in January 1664.
Adding to the carnival-like atmosphere of hanging days, were the hawkers who would work their way through the crowds selling food, souvenirs and copies of the condemned’s final speech and confession (this in spite of the fact that they had not yet arrived at the scaffold).
The wealthy could remove themselves from this crush of people by paying for a seat in the stands that had been erected that were known as ‘Mother Procter’s Pew. A seat with a good view of the gallows was much sought after and people were prepared to pay a good deal of money for them. In fact, when the official site of execution for felons was moved from Tyburn to the privacy of Newgate Prison in 1759, the general populace was not at all happy at having their hanging day holidays curtailed.
Some of the prisoners who were executed were regarded as the celebrities of their age. The highwaymen especially were regarded in a romantic light by the ladies, and when Claude Duval was executed in April 1669 hordes of weeping and wailing women crowded around the gallows and then attended his lavish funeral afterwards. Claude Duval was a gallant Frenchman, who totally charmed and stole the hearts of the ladies that he robbed of their jewels.
He was reputed to have demanded a dance from one lady immediately after he had robbed her husband of £100. Another famous highwayman and burglar who hanged at Tyburn was Jack Sheppard.
He became the darling of the working people in London and a thorn in the side of the authorities, after he was captured five times and managed to escape an astonishing four times in 1724. Jack Sheppard was so popular that an autobiographical narrative, thought to have been ghost-written by Daniel Defoe, was sold at his execution.
Cheating Death on the Gallows
Another surprising fact is that some prisoners managed to survive being hanged at Tyburn. The prisoners would have the noose placed around their neck while they were still in the cart, and when all was ready the horses were whipped into pulling the carts away leaving the condemned dangling.
The drop was very short, and many would convulse for several minutes before they expired in agony. This was known as ‘dancing the Tyburn jig’ and sometimes the executioner and family and friends would tug on the prisoner’s legs to hasten their end.
On Christmas Eve 1705 John Smith dangled at the end of the rope for fifteen minutes while still alive. The crowd started to call for a reprieve and eventually Smith was cut down and carried to a nearby house where they managed to revive him.
In 1740, a teenager called William Duell was hanged for the rape and murder of Sarah Griffin. After he was cut down he was transported to the Surgeons’ Hall where his body was going to be dissected. However, it was noticed that he was showing signs of life and was revived. He was sent back to Newgate Prison and subsequently his sentence was commuted to transportation.
Do You Agree With Capital Punishment?
Historic Figures Executed at Tyburn
Many well-known historical figures were executed at Tyburn, including Roger Mortimer, Earl of March who was the lover of the English Queen Isabella and had rebelled against her husband Edward II, Perkin Warbeck who posed as one of the lost Princes in the Tower and was the figurehead of a rebellion against Henry VII,
Thomas Culpepper the lover of Queen Catherine Howard, Edmund Campion the Catholic martyr, and the last person to ever be hanged at Tyburn was John Austin on 3rd November 1783.
Mercifully, we no longer have the death penalty in the United Kingdom and the days of public executions being a spectacle and a ‘good day out’ are thankfully long gone.
But it pays to remember the horrors of places like Tyburn and all the poor souls who suffered there, so that we do ensure that public executions remain a thing of the past and we do not visit these cruelties as a punishment on any criminal now or in the future.
Questions & Answers
Was Dick Turpin, infamous highwayman, executed/hanged at Tyburn? Where is he buried?
Dick Turpin was hanged in York in 1739. He was buried in St George's parish graveyardHelpful 1
When was the last hanging for highway robbery carried out in England?
The last highwayman to be hanged in England was James Snooks in March 1802. He was executed on Boxmoor, which is near Hemel Hempstead. This location was chosen as it was the nearest public space to where he committed the crime, as was the custom of the time.
© 2010 CMHypno
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ENGLISH
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On 28 September 1918, a Spanish newspaper gave its readers a short lesson on influenza. “The agent responsible for this infection,” it explained, “is the Pfeiffer’s bacillus, which is extremely tiny and visible only by means of a microscope.”
The explanation was timely, because the world was in the grip of the most vicious flu pandemic on record – but it was also wrong: flu is caused by a virus. Unfortunately, it wasn’t just one Spanish newspaper that had misidentified the causative agent of the disease. The idea that flu was caused by a bacillus, or bacterium, was accepted by the most eminent scientists of the day, who would find themselves almost entirely helpless in the face of the scourge.
What was the Spanish flu pandemic?
The H1N1 influenza virus was one of the deadliest disasters in history. Between the first recorded case in March 1918 and the last in March 1920, an estimated 50 million people died, though some experts suggest that the total might actually have been twice that number.
The ‘Spanish flu’ killed more than the First World War, possibly more even than the Second World War – indeed, perhaps more than both put together.
The pandemic struck at a critical juncture in the evolution of understanding of infectious disease. Well into the 19th century, epidemics were considered acts of god – a notion that dated back to the Middle Ages. Bacteria were first observed in the 17th century, but initially weren’t connected with human illnesses. In the late 1850s the French biologist Louis Pasteur made the connection between micro-organisms and disease, and from a couple of decades later German microbiologist Robert Koch furthered modern concepts of infectious disease. ‘Germ theory’ was disseminated far and wide, slowly replacing more fatalistic ideas.
Where did the Spanish flu originate?
There is also no way of being certain where Spanish Flu originated, although the trenches of the First World War, where poor sanitation and disease was rife, are an often-cited contender. The filthy, rat-infested conditions undoubtedly affected the soldiers’ immune systems, making them more vulnerable to illness.
It is thought the first cases were in military forts in the United States before spreading at an alarming rate to Europe. But yet the pandemic was called ‘Spanish Flu’ – again, a result of the war.
Wartime censorship exaggerated the affects of the virus in Spain. While Britain, France, Germany and the United States censored and restricted early reports, papers in Spain – as a neutral country – were free to convey all the horrid details of the pandemic.
This made it look much worse there, so the unfortunate name spread with the disease around the world.
By the 20th century the application of germ theory, combined with improvements in hygiene and sanitation, had made significant inroads against the so-called ‘crowd’ diseases that afflicted human communities, especially those inhabiting the great cities that had mushroomed in the wake of the industrial revolution. Throughout the 19th century, so many urbanites had been lost to such diseases – cholera, typhus and tuberculosis, to name but three – that cities needed a steady influx of healthy peasants from the countryside to keep up their numbers. Now, at last, they had become self-sustaining.
By 1918, then, faith in science was high, and some scientists had even adopted a certain swagger. Twelve years earlier, this had prompted the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw to write The Doctor’s Dilemma, in which an eminent doctor, Sir Colenso Ridgeon – a character based on Sir Almroth Wright, who developed the typhoid vaccine – plays god with his patients’ destinies. Shaw was warning doctors against hubris, but it took an outbreak of another ‘crowd’ disease – influenza – to bring home to them just how little they knew.
Dr Robert Koch (seated), influential in developing ‘germ theory’, and his student Richard Pfeiffer at work in the late 19th century. During the ‘Russian’ flu epidemic starting in 1889, Pfeiffer claimed to have identified the bacillus responsible – though flu is actually caused by a virus. (Getty Images)
When scientists thought about ‘germs’ in the early 20th century, they generally thought about bacteria. The virus was a novel concept; the first virus, discovered in 1892, infected tobacco plants and had been detected indirectly by its ability to transmit disease. Unlike many bacteria, it was too small to be seen through an optical microscope. Without having actually seen viruses, scientists debated their nature: were they organism or toxin, liquid or particle, dead or alive? They were veiled in mystery, and nobody suspected that they could be the cause of flu.
During the previous flu pandemic – the so-called ‘Russian’ flu, which began in 1889 – a student of Koch’s named Richard Pfeiffer claimed to have identified the bacterium that caused the flu. Pfeiffer’s bacillus, as it became known, does exist and does cause disease – but it does not cause flu. During the 1918 pandemic, pathologists who cultivated bacterial colonies from the lung tissue of flu victims found Pfeiffer’s bacillus in some, but not all, of their cultures, and this puzzled them. To add to doctors’ puzzlement, vaccines created against Pfeiffer’s bacillus seemed to benefit some patients. In fact, these vaccines were effective against secondary bacterial infections that caused pneumonia – the ultimate cause of death in many cases – but scientists didn’t know that at the time. They would realise their mistake too late.
Why was it called ‘Spanish flu’?
The Russian flu had acquired its name because it was thought to have originated in Bukhara in Uzbekistan (at that time, part of the Russian empire). The pandemic that broke out nearly 30 years later will always be known as the ‘Spanish flu’, though it didn’t start in Spain. It washed over the world in three waves which, in the northern hemisphere, corresponded to a mild wave in the spring of 1918, a lethal wave the following autumn, and a reprisal in the early months of 1919 that was intermediate in virulence between the other two. The first cases were officially recorded in March 1918 at Camp Funston, a military base in Kansas. Within six weeks the disease had reached the trenches of the western front in France, but it wasn’t until May that the flu broke out in Spain.
Unlike the United States and France, Spain was neutral in the war, so it didn’t censor its press. The first Spanish cases were therefore reported in the newspapers, and because King Alfonso XIII, the prime minister and several members of the cabinet were among those early cases, the country’s plight was highly visible. People all over the world believed that the disease had rippled out from Madrid – a misconception encouraged by propagandists in those belligerent nations that knew they’d contracted it before Spain. In the interests of keeping morale high in their own populations, they were happy to shift the blame. The name stuck.
Understandably, Spaniards smarted at this calumny: they knew they were not responsible, and strongly suspected the French of having sent the flu across the border, but they couldn’t be sure. They cast around for a different label, and found inspiration in an operetta performed at the capital’s Zarzuela Theatre – a hugely popular reworking of the myth of Don Juan, featuring a catchy tune called ‘The Soldier of Naples’. The catchy disease became known in Spain as the ‘Naples Soldier’.
But though the Spanish flu didn’t start in Spain, that country did suffer quite badly with it. In the early 20th century, flu was viewed as a democratic disease – nobody was immune from it – but, even in the thick of the pandemic, it was noted that the disease struck unevenly. It ‘preferred’ certain age groups: the very young and the elderly, but also a middle cohort aged 20 to 40. It preferred men to women, with the exception of pregnant women, who were at particularly high risk.
These age- and gender-related patterns were repeated all over the world, but the virulence with which the flu struck also varied from place to place. Inhabitants of certain parts of Asia were a staggering 30 times more likely to die from the flu than those in parts of Europe. In general, Asia and Africa suffered the highest death rates, with the lowest seen in Europe, North America and Australia. But there was great variation within continents, too. African countries south of the Sahara experienced death rates two or even three times higher than those north of the desert, while Spain recorded one of the highest death rates in Europe – twice that in Britain, three times that in Denmark.
The unevenness didn’t stop there. In general, cities suffered worse than rural areas, but some cities suffered worse than others, and there was also variation within cities. Newly arrived immigrants tended to die more frequently than older, better-established groups, for example. In the countryside, meanwhile, one village might be decimated while another, apparently similar in every way, got away with a light dose.
What types of people caught the Spanish flu?
The flu seemed to strike with an element of randomness, and cruelly so. Because adults in the prime of life died in droves, unlucky communities imploded. Children were orphaned, elderly parents left to fend for themselves. People were at a loss to explain this apparent lottery, and it left them deeply disturbed. Attempting to describe the feeling it inspired in him, a French doctor in the city of Lyons wrote that it was quite unlike the “gut pangs” he had experienced while serving at the front. This was “a more diffuse anxiety, the sensation of some indefinable horror which had taken hold of the inhabitants of that town”.
It was only later, when epidemiologists zeroed in on the numbers, that patterns began to emerge, and the first elements of an explanation were put forward. Some of the variability could be explained by inequalities of wealth and caste – and, to the extent that it reflected these factors, skin colour. Bad diet, crowded living conditions and limited access to healthcare weakened the constitution, rendering the poor, immigrants and ethnic minorities more susceptible to infection. As French historian Patrick Zylberman put it: “The virus might well have behaved ‘democratically’, but the society it attacked was hardly egalitarian.”
Any other underlying disease made a person more susceptible to the Spanish flu, whereas prior exposure to the flu itself modulated the severity of a case. Remote communities without much historical experience of the disease suffered badly, as did cities that were bypassed by the first wave of the pandemic, because they were not immunologically ‘primed’ to the second. For example, Rio de Janeiro – capital of Brazil at the time – received only one wave of flu, in October 1918, and experienced a death rate two or three times higher than that recorded in American cities to the north that had received both the spring and autumn waves. And Bristol Bay in Alaska was spared until early 1919, but when the virus finally gained a foothold it reduced the bay’s Eskimo population by 40%.
Public health campaigns made a difference, despite the fact that medics did not understand the cause of the disease. Since time immemorial, whenever contagion is a threat humans have practised ‘social distancing’ – understanding instinctively that steering clear of infected individuals increases the chance of staying healthy. In 1918, social distancing took the form of quarantine zones, isolation wards and prohibitions on mass gatherings; where they were properly enforced, these measures slowed the spread. Australia kept out the autumn wave entirely by implementing an effective quarantine at its ports.
Exceptions proved the rule. In 1918 Persia was a failed state after years of being used as a pawn in the ‘Great Game’ – the struggle between the British and the Russians for control of the vast area between the Arabian and Caspian Seas. Its government was weak and nearly bankrupt, and it lacked a coherent sanitary infrastructure, so when the flu erupted in the north-eastern holy city of Mashhad in August 1918, no social distancing measures were imposed.
Within a fortnight every home and place of business in Mashhad was infected, and two-thirds of the city’s population fell sick that autumn. With no restrictions on movement, the flu spread outwards with pilgrims, soldiers and merchants to the four corners of the country. By the time Persia was again free of flu, it had lost between 8% and 22% of its population (that uncertainty reflecting the fact that, in a country in crisis, gathering statistics was hardly a priority). By way of comparison, even 8% equates to 20 times the flu-related mortality rate in Ireland.
Schoolgirls in Tokyo don protective face masks to guard against flu transmission during the outbreak. The use of such masks by the Japanese public boomed during the 1918–20 epidemic and subsequent disease outbreaks, and remains common in Japan today. (Getty images)
Where disparities in rates of illness and death were perceived, people’s explanations reflected contemporary understanding – or, rather, misunderstanding – of infectious disease. When Charles Darwin laid out his theory of evolution by natural selection in On the Origin of Species (1859), he had not intended his ideas to be applied to human societies, but others of his time did just that, creating the ‘science’ of eugenics. Eugenicists believed that humanity comprised different ‘races’ that competed for survival, and by 1918 their thinking was mainstream in industrialised societies. Some eugenicists noted that poorer sectors of society were suffering disproportionately from the flu, which they attributed to a constitutional inferiority. They had also incorporated germ theory into their world view: if the poor and the working classes were more prone to infection, reasoned the eugenicists, they only had themselves to blame, because Pasteur had taught that infection was preventable.
The terrible consequences of this line of thinking are illustrated nowhere better than in India. That land’s British colonisers had long taken the view that India was inherently unhygienic, and so had invested little in indigenous healthcare. As many as 18 million Indians died in the pandemic – the greatest loss in absolute numbers of any country in the world. But there would be a backlash. The underpowered British response to the spread of flu fuelled resentment within the independence movement. Tensions came to a head with the passing into law in early 1919 of the Rowlatt Act, which extended martial law in the country. This triggered peaceful protests, and on 13 April British troops fired into an unarmed crowd in Amritsar, killing hundreds of Indian people – a massacre that galvanised the independence movement.
The Spanish flu prompted uprisings elsewhere. The autumn of 1918 saw a wave of workers’ strikes and anti-imperialist protests across the world. Disgruntlement had been smouldering since before the Russian revolutions of 1917, but the flu fanned the flames by exacerbating what was already a dire supply situation, and by highlighting inequality. Even well-ordered Switzerland narrowly avoided a civil war in November 1918 after leftwing groups blamed the high number of flu deaths in the army on the government and military command.
A temporary hospital erected in Oakland Municipal Auditorium in Oakland, California with volunteer nurses from the American Red Cross tending the sick during the influenza pandemic of 1918. (Photo by Underwood Archives/Getty Images)
There were still parts of the world where people had never heard of either Darwin or germ theory, and where the population turned to more tried-and-tested explanations. In the rural interior of China, for example, many people still believed that illness was sent by demons and dragons; they paraded figures of dragon kings through the streets in the hope of appeasing the irate spirits. A missionary doctor described going from house to house in Shanxi province in early 1919, and finding scissors placed in doorways – apparently to ward off demons “or perchance to cut them in two”.
Even in the modernised west, people vacillated. Death often seemed to strike without rhyme or reason. Many still remembered a more mystical, pre-Darwinian era, and four years of war had worn down psychological defences. Seeing how ill-equipped their men of science were to help them, many people came to believe that the pandemic was an act of god – divine retribution for their sins. In Zamora – the same Spanish city whose newspaper stated with such confidence that the agent of disease was Pfeiffer’s bacillus – the bishop defied the health authorities’ ban on mass gatherings and ordered people into the churches to placate “God’s legitimate anger”. This city subsequently recorded one of the highest death tolls from flu in Spain – a fact of which its inhabitants were aware, though they don’t seem to have held it against their bishop. Instead they awarded him a medal in recognition of his heroic efforts to end their suffering.
This exemplifies how responses to the flu reflected gulfs in understanding. The 1918 pandemic struck a world that was entirely unprepared for it, dealing a body blow to scientific hubris, and destabilising social and political orders for decades to come.
Laura Spinney is a journalist and the author of Pale Rider: The Spanish Flu of 1918 and How it Changed the World, (Jonathan Cape, June 2017).
This article first appeared in BBC World Histories, issue 4
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On 28 September 1918, a Spanish newspaper gave its readers a short lesson on influenza. “The agent responsible for this infection,” it explained, “is the Pfeiffer’s bacillus, which is extremely tiny and visible only by means of a microscope.”
The explanation was timely, because the world was in the grip of the most vicious flu pandemic on record – but it was also wrong: flu is caused by a virus. Unfortunately, it wasn’t just one Spanish newspaper that had misidentified the causative agent of the disease. The idea that flu was caused by a bacillus, or bacterium, was accepted by the most eminent scientists of the day, who would find themselves almost entirely helpless in the face of the scourge.
What was the Spanish flu pandemic?
The H1N1 influenza virus was one of the deadliest disasters in history. Between the first recorded case in March 1918 and the last in March 1920, an estimated 50 million people died, though some experts suggest that the total might actually have been twice that number.
The ‘Spanish flu’ killed more than the First World War, possibly more even than the Second World War – indeed, perhaps more than both put together.
The pandemic struck at a critical juncture in the evolution of understanding of infectious disease. Well into the 19th century, epidemics were considered acts of god – a notion that dated back to the Middle Ages. Bacteria were first observed in the 17th century, but initially weren’t connected with human illnesses. In the late 1850s the French biologist Louis Pasteur made the connection between micro-organisms and disease, and from a couple of decades later German microbiologist Robert Koch furthered modern concepts of infectious disease. ‘Germ theory’ was disseminated far and wide, slowly replacing more fatalistic ideas.
Where did the Spanish flu originate?
There is also no way of being certain where Spanish Flu originated, although the trenches of the First World War, where poor sanitation and disease was rife, are an often-cited contender. The filthy, rat-infested conditions undoubtedly affected the soldiers’ immune systems, making them more vulnerable to illness.
It is thought the first cases were in military forts in the United States before spreading at an alarming rate to Europe. But yet the pandemic was called ‘Spanish Flu’ – again, a result of the war.
Wartime censorship exaggerated the affects of the virus in Spain. While Britain, France, Germany and the United States censored and restricted early reports, papers in Spain – as a neutral country – were free to convey all the horrid details of the pandemic.
This made it look much worse there, so the unfortunate name spread with the disease around the world.
By the 20th century the application of germ theory, combined with improvements in hygiene and sanitation, had made significant inroads against the so-called ‘crowd’ diseases that afflicted human communities, especially those inhabiting the great cities that had mushroomed in the wake of the industrial revolution. Throughout the 19th century, so many urbanites had been lost to such diseases – cholera, typhus and tuberculosis, to name but three – that cities needed a steady influx of healthy peasants from the countryside to keep up their numbers. Now, at last, they had become self-sustaining.
By 1918, then, faith in science was high, and some scientists had even adopted a certain swagger. Twelve years earlier, this had prompted the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw to write The Doctor’s Dilemma, in which an eminent doctor, Sir Colenso Ridgeon – a character based on Sir Almroth Wright, who developed the typhoid vaccine – plays god with his patients’ destinies. Shaw was warning doctors against hubris, but it took an outbreak of another ‘crowd’ disease – influenza – to bring home to them just how little they knew.
Dr Robert Koch (seated), influential in developing ‘germ theory’, and his student Richard Pfeiffer at work in the late 19th century. During the ‘Russian’ flu epidemic starting in 1889, Pfeiffer claimed to have identified the bacillus responsible – though flu is actually caused by a virus. (Getty Images)
When scientists thought about ‘germs’ in the early 20th century, they generally thought about bacteria. The virus was a novel concept; the first virus, discovered in 1892, infected tobacco plants and had been detected indirectly by its ability to transmit disease. Unlike many bacteria, it was too small to be seen through an optical microscope. Without having actually seen viruses, scientists debated their nature: were they organism or toxin, liquid or particle, dead or alive? They were veiled in mystery, and nobody suspected that they could be the cause of flu.
During the previous flu pandemic – the so-called ‘Russian’ flu, which began in 1889 – a student of Koch’s named Richard Pfeiffer claimed to have identified the bacterium that caused the flu. Pfeiffer’s bacillus, as it became known, does exist and does cause disease – but it does not cause flu. During the 1918 pandemic, pathologists who cultivated bacterial colonies from the lung tissue of flu victims found Pfeiffer’s bacillus in some, but not all, of their cultures, and this puzzled them. To add to doctors’ puzzlement, vaccines created against Pfeiffer’s bacillus seemed to benefit some patients. In fact, these vaccines were effective against secondary bacterial infections that caused pneumonia – the ultimate cause of death in many cases – but scientists didn’t know that at the time. They would realise their mistake too late.
Why was it called ‘Spanish flu’?
The Russian flu had acquired its name because it was thought to have originated in Bukhara in Uzbekistan (at that time, part of the Russian empire). The pandemic that broke out nearly 30 years later will always be known as the ‘Spanish flu’, though it didn’t start in Spain. It washed over the world in three waves which, in the northern hemisphere, corresponded to a mild wave in the spring of 1918, a lethal wave the following autumn, and a reprisal in the early months of 1919 that was intermediate in virulence between the other two. The first cases were officially recorded in March 1918 at Camp Funston, a military base in Kansas. Within six weeks the disease had reached the trenches of the western front in France, but it wasn’t until May that the flu broke out in Spain.
Unlike the United States and France, Spain was neutral in the war, so it didn’t censor its press. The first Spanish cases were therefore reported in the newspapers, and because King Alfonso XIII, the prime minister and several members of the cabinet were among those early cases, the country’s plight was highly visible. People all over the world believed that the disease had rippled out from Madrid – a misconception encouraged by propagandists in those belligerent nations that knew they’d contracted it before Spain. In the interests of keeping morale high in their own populations, they were happy to shift the blame. The name stuck.
Understandably, Spaniards smarted at this calumny: they knew they were not responsible, and strongly suspected the French of having sent the flu across the border, but they couldn’t be sure. They cast around for a different label, and found inspiration in an operetta performed at the capital’s Zarzuela Theatre – a hugely popular reworking of the myth of Don Juan, featuring a catchy tune called ‘The Soldier of Naples’. The catchy disease became known in Spain as the ‘Naples Soldier’.
But though the Spanish flu didn’t start in Spain, that country did suffer quite badly with it. In the early 20th century, flu was viewed as a democratic disease – nobody was immune from it – but, even in the thick of the pandemic, it was noted that the disease struck unevenly. It ‘preferred’ certain age groups: the very young and the elderly, but also a middle cohort aged 20 to 40. It preferred men to women, with the exception of pregnant women, who were at particularly high risk.
These age- and gender-related patterns were repeated all over the world, but the virulence with which the flu struck also varied from place to place. Inhabitants of certain parts of Asia were a staggering 30 times more likely to die from the flu than those in parts of Europe. In general, Asia and Africa suffered the highest death rates, with the lowest seen in Europe, North America and Australia. But there was great variation within continents, too. African countries south of the Sahara experienced death rates two or even three times higher than those north of the desert, while Spain recorded one of the highest death rates in Europe – twice that in Britain, three times that in Denmark.
The unevenness didn’t stop there. In general, cities suffered worse than rural areas, but some cities suffered worse than others, and there was also variation within cities. Newly arrived immigrants tended to die more frequently than older, better-established groups, for example. In the countryside, meanwhile, one village might be decimated while another, apparently similar in every way, got away with a light dose.
What types of people caught the Spanish flu?
The flu seemed to strike with an element of randomness, and cruelly so. Because adults in the prime of life died in droves, unlucky communities imploded. Children were orphaned, elderly parents left to fend for themselves. People were at a loss to explain this apparent lottery, and it left them deeply disturbed. Attempting to describe the feeling it inspired in him, a French doctor in the city of Lyons wrote that it was quite unlike the “gut pangs” he had experienced while serving at the front. This was “a more diffuse anxiety, the sensation of some indefinable horror which had taken hold of the inhabitants of that town”.
It was only later, when epidemiologists zeroed in on the numbers, that patterns began to emerge, and the first elements of an explanation were put forward. Some of the variability could be explained by inequalities of wealth and caste – and, to the extent that it reflected these factors, skin colour. Bad diet, crowded living conditions and limited access to healthcare weakened the constitution, rendering the poor, immigrants and ethnic minorities more susceptible to infection. As French historian Patrick Zylberman put it: “The virus might well have behaved ‘democratically’, but the society it attacked was hardly egalitarian.”
Any other underlying disease made a person more susceptible to the Spanish flu, whereas prior exposure to the flu itself modulated the severity of a case. Remote communities without much historical experience of the disease suffered badly, as did cities that were bypassed by the first wave of the pandemic, because they were not immunologically ‘primed’ to the second. For example, Rio de Janeiro – capital of Brazil at the time – received only one wave of flu, in October 1918, and experienced a death rate two or three times higher than that recorded in American cities to the north that had received both the spring and autumn waves. And Bristol Bay in Alaska was spared until early 1919, but when the virus finally gained a foothold it reduced the bay’s Eskimo population by 40%.
Public health campaigns made a difference, despite the fact that medics did not understand the cause of the disease. Since time immemorial, whenever contagion is a threat humans have practised ‘social distancing’ – understanding instinctively that steering clear of infected individuals increases the chance of staying healthy. In 1918, social distancing took the form of quarantine zones, isolation wards and prohibitions on mass gatherings; where they were properly enforced, these measures slowed the spread. Australia kept out the autumn wave entirely by implementing an effective quarantine at its ports.
Exceptions proved the rule. In 1918 Persia was a failed state after years of being used as a pawn in the ‘Great Game’ – the struggle between the British and the Russians for control of the vast area between the Arabian and Caspian Seas. Its government was weak and nearly bankrupt, and it lacked a coherent sanitary infrastructure, so when the flu erupted in the north-eastern holy city of Mashhad in August 1918, no social distancing measures were imposed.
Within a fortnight every home and place of business in Mashhad was infected, and two-thirds of the city’s population fell sick that autumn. With no restrictions on movement, the flu spread outwards with pilgrims, soldiers and merchants to the four corners of the country. By the time Persia was again free of flu, it had lost between 8% and 22% of its population (that uncertainty reflecting the fact that, in a country in crisis, gathering statistics was hardly a priority). By way of comparison, even 8% equates to 20 times the flu-related mortality rate in Ireland.
Schoolgirls in Tokyo don protective face masks to guard against flu transmission during the outbreak. The use of such masks by the Japanese public boomed during the 1918–20 epidemic and subsequent disease outbreaks, and remains common in Japan today. (Getty images)
Where disparities in rates of illness and death were perceived, people’s explanations reflected contemporary understanding – or, rather, misunderstanding – of infectious disease. When Charles Darwin laid out his theory of evolution by natural selection in On the Origin of Species (1859), he had not intended his ideas to be applied to human societies, but others of his time did just that, creating the ‘science’ of eugenics. Eugenicists believed that humanity comprised different ‘races’ that competed for survival, and by 1918 their thinking was mainstream in industrialised societies. Some eugenicists noted that poorer sectors of society were suffering disproportionately from the flu, which they attributed to a constitutional inferiority. They had also incorporated germ theory into their world view: if the poor and the working classes were more prone to infection, reasoned the eugenicists, they only had themselves to blame, because Pasteur had taught that infection was preventable.
The terrible consequences of this line of thinking are illustrated nowhere better than in India. That land’s British colonisers had long taken the view that India was inherently unhygienic, and so had invested little in indigenous healthcare. As many as 18 million Indians died in the pandemic – the greatest loss in absolute numbers of any country in the world. But there would be a backlash. The underpowered British response to the spread of flu fuelled resentment within the independence movement. Tensions came to a head with the passing into law in early 1919 of the Rowlatt Act, which extended martial law in the country. This triggered peaceful protests, and on 13 April British troops fired into an unarmed crowd in Amritsar, killing hundreds of Indian people – a massacre that galvanised the independence movement.
The Spanish flu prompted uprisings elsewhere. The autumn of 1918 saw a wave of workers’ strikes and anti-imperialist protests across the world. Disgruntlement had been smouldering since before the Russian revolutions of 1917, but the flu fanned the flames by exacerbating what was already a dire supply situation, and by highlighting inequality. Even well-ordered Switzerland narrowly avoided a civil war in November 1918 after leftwing groups blamed the high number of flu deaths in the army on the government and military command.
A temporary hospital erected in Oakland Municipal Auditorium in Oakland, California with volunteer nurses from the American Red Cross tending the sick during the influenza pandemic of 1918. (Photo by Underwood Archives/Getty Images)
There were still parts of the world where people had never heard of either Darwin or germ theory, and where the population turned to more tried-and-tested explanations. In the rural interior of China, for example, many people still believed that illness was sent by demons and dragons; they paraded figures of dragon kings through the streets in the hope of appeasing the irate spirits. A missionary doctor described going from house to house in Shanxi province in early 1919, and finding scissors placed in doorways – apparently to ward off demons “or perchance to cut them in two”.
Even in the modernised west, people vacillated. Death often seemed to strike without rhyme or reason. Many still remembered a more mystical, pre-Darwinian era, and four years of war had worn down psychological defences. Seeing how ill-equipped their men of science were to help them, many people came to believe that the pandemic was an act of god – divine retribution for their sins. In Zamora – the same Spanish city whose newspaper stated with such confidence that the agent of disease was Pfeiffer’s bacillus – the bishop defied the health authorities’ ban on mass gatherings and ordered people into the churches to placate “God’s legitimate anger”. This city subsequently recorded one of the highest death tolls from flu in Spain – a fact of which its inhabitants were aware, though they don’t seem to have held it against their bishop. Instead they awarded him a medal in recognition of his heroic efforts to end their suffering.
This exemplifies how responses to the flu reflected gulfs in understanding. The 1918 pandemic struck a world that was entirely unprepared for it, dealing a body blow to scientific hubris, and destabilising social and political orders for decades to come.
Laura Spinney is a journalist and the author of Pale Rider: The Spanish Flu of 1918 and How it Changed the World, (Jonathan Cape, June 2017).
This article first appeared in BBC World Histories, issue 4
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ENGLISH
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It all started in 1605, when a group of Catholic men led by Robert Catesby plotted to blow up the Protestant dominant English parliament under the rule of King James. King James, successor to Elizabeth failed to restore the rights of Catholics in England who had been subjected to endless persecution under the rule of a queen who had been excommunicated by the Vatican for her ruthless reign.
Feeling failed and desperate the men sought to assassinate the “rogue” king, in hopes he would be replaced by his daughter Princess Elizabeth who was seen to hold the key to the salvation of England’s Catholic community.
The plot of course failed, after a warning letter, known as the Monteagle letter was sent to one of the Catholic members of parliament as a warning, asking him not to be present on the day of the explosion. Fawkes, who had been in the lower chambers of parliament a night before the plot was caught, tortured and executed.
Each year, in remembrance of this event effigies of Fawkes are burnt on the streets of England as a sort of celebration and victory of the state against the plotters. Children run around asking for “pennies for Guy”, later on using the money to purchase fireworks as part of the tradition.
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] | 2
|
It all started in 1605, when a group of Catholic men led by Robert Catesby plotted to blow up the Protestant dominant English parliament under the rule of King James. King James, successor to Elizabeth failed to restore the rights of Catholics in England who had been subjected to endless persecution under the rule of a queen who had been excommunicated by the Vatican for her ruthless reign.
Feeling failed and desperate the men sought to assassinate the “rogue” king, in hopes he would be replaced by his daughter Princess Elizabeth who was seen to hold the key to the salvation of England’s Catholic community.
The plot of course failed, after a warning letter, known as the Monteagle letter was sent to one of the Catholic members of parliament as a warning, asking him not to be present on the day of the explosion. Fawkes, who had been in the lower chambers of parliament a night before the plot was caught, tortured and executed.
Each year, in remembrance of this event effigies of Fawkes are burnt on the streets of England as a sort of celebration and victory of the state against the plotters. Children run around asking for “pennies for Guy”, later on using the money to purchase fireworks as part of the tradition.
| 259
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The B-29 Superfortress was developed primarily for long-range strategic bombing of Japan. Until the Mariana Islands could be retaken, the B-29s were based in India, and strikes against Japan were staged through bases in eastern China. One of the early groups based in India, at Chakulia to the west of Calcutta, was the 40th Bomb Group. It participated in the first strategic strike–against steel plants at Yawata, Japan–on June 15, 1944.
The big bombers also were used frequently against tactical targets in Southeast Asia. On Feb. 26, 1945, one of the 40th’s crews was assigned an unescorted photoreconnaissance mission to Singapore, about 1,800 miles away from home base. No survivor of Capt. James Lyons’s crew will ever forget that day.
On their flight home from a thus-far uneventful sortie, their B-29 was attacked by an enemy fighter. Copilot Mills Bale, who was at the controls, turned into the bandit, and central fire control gunner Pfc. J. M. Moffit fired continuously but with no results. The CFC system clearly was out of sync. Bad news, because much of the flight home would be in range of enemy fighters.
Shells from the Japanese plane set the nose section afire, seriously wounded bombardier 1st Lt. William Kintis, and knocked out the number two engine. While radio operator Sgt. Joseph Dimock helped extinguish the flames, Captain Lyons pulled the unconscious Kintis out of the flames, burning his hands so badly that when he later removed them from the controls, the skin remained on the wheel.
The enemy fighter struck again, hitting a full auxiliary fuel tank in the rear bomb bay. When the damaged tank was jettisoned, it hit the bomb bay doors and became lodged partially out of the aircraft. Radar operator TSgt. John Topolski and left gunner TSgt. Louis Sandrick went into the open bomb bay with no parachutes and managed to release the tank, but it hit and bent the bomb bay doors so badly they would not close. If it became necessary to abandon the aircraft, ditching was out. They would have to parachute into the water, with a reduced chance of rescue.
Despite the bomber’s damaged condition, Captain Lyons thought the B-29 would get them home. They were losing altitude slowly when he noticed a small spot on the leading edge of the wing near the feathered number two engine. The spot gradually expanded. It was a fire in the wing. An hour later, Sandrick, who had been watching the wing, heard an explosion and saw the upper skin of the wing flex. Captain Lyons knew it was time to get out. Their approximate location was reported by another B-29 that was following them, air-sea rescue forces were notified, and, soon after the crew bailed out, a search got under way.
A line had been attached to the rip cord of Bill Kintis’s parachute, and the still-unconscious bombardier was dropped out, followed as rapidly as possible by other crew members. Kintis was never seen again, nor were the tailgunner Sgt. J. J. Carney or CFC gunner Moffit. The B-29 exploded while the crew members were still descending in their chutes.
The sea was relatively calm, but swells made it impossible for the men to see each other. By shouting, Lyons, Bale, SSgt. Anthony P. Peleckis, flight engineer Lt. Frank Thorp, and Sandrick found each other in the next few hours and tied themselves together to ride out a long night with an uncertain outcome. The next day, about 20 hours after they bailed out, the five were rescued by an RAF Catalina flying boat.
Soon after the crew had punched out, a 40th Bomb Group B-29 located some of the other men and dropped a raft, which Sergeant Dimock retrieved. Paddling toward their shouts, he picked up navigator Lt. Nathan Teplick and Vernon Lester, but Sergeant Topolski had become separated from the others. His Mae West could barely keep him afloat. Half swimming and half floating, he spent a lonely, terrifying night in the shark-infested water.
By great good fortune, the British submarine HMS Seadog, which was patrolling for enemy shipping, picked up the signal of the B-29 that had been following Lyons’s Superfortress and had reported the location of the crew’s bailout. The submarine’s captain, Lt. E. A. Hobson, abandoned his antishipping mission and navigated toward the coordinates of the B-29’s signal, despite the danger of attack by Japanese surface ships.
At midafternoon the next day, Seadog spotted the raft bearing Dimock, Teplick, and Lester. The three persuaded Lieutenant Hobson to continue a hazardous search for other members of their crew. The submarine finally found an exhausted Topolski, who had been in the water for nearly 30 hours and would not have lasted another night. The four men were transferred to an RAF Catalina and flown to Calcutta. It was the same flying boat that had picked up Lyons and those with him, then returned to continue the search.
After recuperating in the hospital, the nine survivors rejoined their group at Tinian, its new base. The 40th BG continued to fly missions against Japan, earning two Distinguished Unit Citations in addition to the one it had been awarded for its part in the initial attack on Yawata. But they never flew another mission quite comparable to their return from Singapore.
Thanks to William A. Rooney, a former member of the 40th BG and editor of the 40th Bomb Group’s newsletter, “Memories.”
Published November 1996. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy.
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] | 10
|
The B-29 Superfortress was developed primarily for long-range strategic bombing of Japan. Until the Mariana Islands could be retaken, the B-29s were based in India, and strikes against Japan were staged through bases in eastern China. One of the early groups based in India, at Chakulia to the west of Calcutta, was the 40th Bomb Group. It participated in the first strategic strike–against steel plants at Yawata, Japan–on June 15, 1944.
The big bombers also were used frequently against tactical targets in Southeast Asia. On Feb. 26, 1945, one of the 40th’s crews was assigned an unescorted photoreconnaissance mission to Singapore, about 1,800 miles away from home base. No survivor of Capt. James Lyons’s crew will ever forget that day.
On their flight home from a thus-far uneventful sortie, their B-29 was attacked by an enemy fighter. Copilot Mills Bale, who was at the controls, turned into the bandit, and central fire control gunner Pfc. J. M. Moffit fired continuously but with no results. The CFC system clearly was out of sync. Bad news, because much of the flight home would be in range of enemy fighters.
Shells from the Japanese plane set the nose section afire, seriously wounded bombardier 1st Lt. William Kintis, and knocked out the number two engine. While radio operator Sgt. Joseph Dimock helped extinguish the flames, Captain Lyons pulled the unconscious Kintis out of the flames, burning his hands so badly that when he later removed them from the controls, the skin remained on the wheel.
The enemy fighter struck again, hitting a full auxiliary fuel tank in the rear bomb bay. When the damaged tank was jettisoned, it hit the bomb bay doors and became lodged partially out of the aircraft. Radar operator TSgt. John Topolski and left gunner TSgt. Louis Sandrick went into the open bomb bay with no parachutes and managed to release the tank, but it hit and bent the bomb bay doors so badly they would not close. If it became necessary to abandon the aircraft, ditching was out. They would have to parachute into the water, with a reduced chance of rescue.
Despite the bomber’s damaged condition, Captain Lyons thought the B-29 would get them home. They were losing altitude slowly when he noticed a small spot on the leading edge of the wing near the feathered number two engine. The spot gradually expanded. It was a fire in the wing. An hour later, Sandrick, who had been watching the wing, heard an explosion and saw the upper skin of the wing flex. Captain Lyons knew it was time to get out. Their approximate location was reported by another B-29 that was following them, air-sea rescue forces were notified, and, soon after the crew bailed out, a search got under way.
A line had been attached to the rip cord of Bill Kintis’s parachute, and the still-unconscious bombardier was dropped out, followed as rapidly as possible by other crew members. Kintis was never seen again, nor were the tailgunner Sgt. J. J. Carney or CFC gunner Moffit. The B-29 exploded while the crew members were still descending in their chutes.
The sea was relatively calm, but swells made it impossible for the men to see each other. By shouting, Lyons, Bale, SSgt. Anthony P. Peleckis, flight engineer Lt. Frank Thorp, and Sandrick found each other in the next few hours and tied themselves together to ride out a long night with an uncertain outcome. The next day, about 20 hours after they bailed out, the five were rescued by an RAF Catalina flying boat.
Soon after the crew had punched out, a 40th Bomb Group B-29 located some of the other men and dropped a raft, which Sergeant Dimock retrieved. Paddling toward their shouts, he picked up navigator Lt. Nathan Teplick and Vernon Lester, but Sergeant Topolski had become separated from the others. His Mae West could barely keep him afloat. Half swimming and half floating, he spent a lonely, terrifying night in the shark-infested water.
By great good fortune, the British submarine HMS Seadog, which was patrolling for enemy shipping, picked up the signal of the B-29 that had been following Lyons’s Superfortress and had reported the location of the crew’s bailout. The submarine’s captain, Lt. E. A. Hobson, abandoned his antishipping mission and navigated toward the coordinates of the B-29’s signal, despite the danger of attack by Japanese surface ships.
At midafternoon the next day, Seadog spotted the raft bearing Dimock, Teplick, and Lester. The three persuaded Lieutenant Hobson to continue a hazardous search for other members of their crew. The submarine finally found an exhausted Topolski, who had been in the water for nearly 30 hours and would not have lasted another night. The four men were transferred to an RAF Catalina and flown to Calcutta. It was the same flying boat that had picked up Lyons and those with him, then returned to continue the search.
After recuperating in the hospital, the nine survivors rejoined their group at Tinian, its new base. The 40th BG continued to fly missions against Japan, earning two Distinguished Unit Citations in addition to the one it had been awarded for its part in the initial attack on Yawata. But they never flew another mission quite comparable to their return from Singapore.
Thanks to William A. Rooney, a former member of the 40th BG and editor of the 40th Bomb Group’s newsletter, “Memories.”
Published November 1996. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy.
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Kgosi Kgamanyane Pilane was born in the 1820s in Pilanesberg, near present-day Rustenburg among the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela people of the North-West province in South Africa and neighboring Botswana. (Refusing to let his people do unpaid labor, this fearless Botswana leader stood up against Paul Kruger in the 1860s)
The tribal capital of the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela people, the village of Moruleng, is a short three kilometers from Bakgatla Gate on the edge of the Pilanesberg National Park.
The Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela have lived and worked there since the 1800s, when Kgosi Pilane Pheto settled his people at Mmasobudule on the Elands River, in the area known today as the Pilanesberg.
According to Beatrice Roberts, a freelance researcher and writer living in Johannesburg, life at that time wasn’t easy for the Tswana communities north of the Vaal River.
“They had to deal with cattle raids, inter-tribal battles, droughts, floods, locusts, and disease,” she wrote.
The Bakgatla-ba-kgafela, nonetheless, flourished under Kgosi Kgamanyane who took over the chieftainship upon the death of his father.
As the senior son, Kgosi Kgamanyane succeeded his father Pilane Pheto per tradition in 1848. He ruled the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela at a time when the Transvaal province was under the control of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR). As a result, the Boers dominated most of the land.
According to historical accounts, in 1836, the Voortrekkers (Boers) arrived in the area, looking to occupy land where they could graze their cattle and be free from British rule.
The Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela and the Boers mostly lived peacefully side by side, but soon settler land claims encroached on the land occupied by the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela and other African communities, wrote Roberts.
Kgamanyane, however, was able to secure arable land for his people through 26 land deals by trading labor for land with the Boers in the 1850s and 1860s.
His people were recruited as Boer servants in wars against several African tribes, but it was reported that he was secretly fighting the settlers.
After the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela allowed the Boers onto their premises, they introduced a system of formal land registration. As a result, they were losing much of their land to white settlers.
Many were forced to work for the Boers in exchange for land use for their farming activity. Boers also frequently captured black children for indentured labor.
In the 1860s, Kgamanyane moved his capital from Mmasobudule to Paul Kruger’s farm, Saulspoort, at Moruleng, on the slopes of the Pilanesberg.
Kruger, noted in South African history as the builder of the Afrikaner nation, would become president of the Transvaal, or South African Republic, from 1883 until his flight to Europe in 1900, after the outbreak of the South African (Boer) War.
In 1868, after Kgamanyane had moved his capital to Kruger’s farm, it has been documented that the Dutch Reformed missionary Henri Gonin bought the farm from Kruger for £900, with the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela contributing half of that amount.
The deed of sale stated that Kgamanyane, his people and their descendants would always be allowed to live there.
It was reported that during his reign, the Bakgatla flourished in farming, trade, and raiding as his tribe was one of the few allowed by the Boers to keep guns.
Kgamanyane’s quiet diplomacy, however, ended in 1868 when he openly defied Kruger’s request to supply labor for the building of a dam by harnessing men to carts filled with rocks.
For refusing to let his people work for Kruger as unpaid labor, Kgamanyane was tried and found guilty. He was subsequently flogged and humiliated in front of his people. This led him to relocate his people to Mochudi in present-day Botswana.
He died in 1871 and was succeeded by his son Lentswe. He was survived by at least 50 wives and numerous children.
Today, platinum wealth has enabled the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela to embark on some significant developments, including the Moruleng Cultural Precinct, a Johannesburg-based museum and exhibition team.
There is also the Mphebatho Cultural Museum, which holds some fascinating stories of the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela people.
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Kgosi Kgamanyane Pilane was born in the 1820s in Pilanesberg, near present-day Rustenburg among the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela people of the North-West province in South Africa and neighboring Botswana. (Refusing to let his people do unpaid labor, this fearless Botswana leader stood up against Paul Kruger in the 1860s)
The tribal capital of the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela people, the village of Moruleng, is a short three kilometers from Bakgatla Gate on the edge of the Pilanesberg National Park.
The Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela have lived and worked there since the 1800s, when Kgosi Pilane Pheto settled his people at Mmasobudule on the Elands River, in the area known today as the Pilanesberg.
According to Beatrice Roberts, a freelance researcher and writer living in Johannesburg, life at that time wasn’t easy for the Tswana communities north of the Vaal River.
“They had to deal with cattle raids, inter-tribal battles, droughts, floods, locusts, and disease,” she wrote.
The Bakgatla-ba-kgafela, nonetheless, flourished under Kgosi Kgamanyane who took over the chieftainship upon the death of his father.
As the senior son, Kgosi Kgamanyane succeeded his father Pilane Pheto per tradition in 1848. He ruled the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela at a time when the Transvaal province was under the control of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR). As a result, the Boers dominated most of the land.
According to historical accounts, in 1836, the Voortrekkers (Boers) arrived in the area, looking to occupy land where they could graze their cattle and be free from British rule.
The Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela and the Boers mostly lived peacefully side by side, but soon settler land claims encroached on the land occupied by the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela and other African communities, wrote Roberts.
Kgamanyane, however, was able to secure arable land for his people through 26 land deals by trading labor for land with the Boers in the 1850s and 1860s.
His people were recruited as Boer servants in wars against several African tribes, but it was reported that he was secretly fighting the settlers.
After the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela allowed the Boers onto their premises, they introduced a system of formal land registration. As a result, they were losing much of their land to white settlers.
Many were forced to work for the Boers in exchange for land use for their farming activity. Boers also frequently captured black children for indentured labor.
In the 1860s, Kgamanyane moved his capital from Mmasobudule to Paul Kruger’s farm, Saulspoort, at Moruleng, on the slopes of the Pilanesberg.
Kruger, noted in South African history as the builder of the Afrikaner nation, would become president of the Transvaal, or South African Republic, from 1883 until his flight to Europe in 1900, after the outbreak of the South African (Boer) War.
In 1868, after Kgamanyane had moved his capital to Kruger’s farm, it has been documented that the Dutch Reformed missionary Henri Gonin bought the farm from Kruger for £900, with the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela contributing half of that amount.
The deed of sale stated that Kgamanyane, his people and their descendants would always be allowed to live there.
It was reported that during his reign, the Bakgatla flourished in farming, trade, and raiding as his tribe was one of the few allowed by the Boers to keep guns.
Kgamanyane’s quiet diplomacy, however, ended in 1868 when he openly defied Kruger’s request to supply labor for the building of a dam by harnessing men to carts filled with rocks.
For refusing to let his people work for Kruger as unpaid labor, Kgamanyane was tried and found guilty. He was subsequently flogged and humiliated in front of his people. This led him to relocate his people to Mochudi in present-day Botswana.
He died in 1871 and was succeeded by his son Lentswe. He was survived by at least 50 wives and numerous children.
Today, platinum wealth has enabled the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela to embark on some significant developments, including the Moruleng Cultural Precinct, a Johannesburg-based museum and exhibition team.
There is also the Mphebatho Cultural Museum, which holds some fascinating stories of the Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela people.
| 1,069
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Everyone has heard of Tutankhamun, the boy king of Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty. Tutankhamun wasn’t famous for being a pharaoh, though. He was famous because Edward Carter and Lord Carnarvon discovered his nearly intact tomb in 1922. In reality, he was little more than a blip on the dynastic radar, especially as he was overshadowed by his father/stepfather, Akhenaten. Akhenaten wasn’t the only interesting figure of the Eighteenth Dynasty, however. The Eighteenth Dynasty was populated by fascinating kings. No one more so than Hatshepsut, the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty, a figure who ruled during the fifteenth century BCE.
A woman king.
Limestone statue of Hatshepsut wearing male clothing, but with a female form (statue is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, source en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hatshepsut.jp
Hatshepsut wasn’t the first woman to become king (or Pharaoh as it became in the Eighteenth Dynasty), nor was she the last. But out of the 31 dynasties of Egyptian rulers, only six of the kings were known to be women - although this number is contested. It could potentially be higher, with Akhenaten’s wife, Nefertiti, also suspected as having ruled after his death. But most of these women came to the throne, not as King’s Mother (a title of power and prestige) but as king. And these women were not afforded the praise and honour of King’s Mother after their deaths – these women had their names obliterated from the record, images destroyed and their monuments reinscribed.
Hatshepsut has long been regaled as one of the most successful pharaohs of Egypt and was renowned for her building projects, but she remained a forgotten figure of history for thousands of years. For the non-archaeologist/history buff, it is only in recent times that you may have heard of her, as archaeologists claim to have discovered her body on the floor of the tomb of her wet-nurse, Sitre-Re. The body had been left without even a coffin for protection. Analysis regarding a tooth found with remains in canopic jars (funerary containers that hold viscera) found a link between the jar and a mummy found within the tomb. The mummy was thought to have died in middle age, the woman suffering from diabetes and bone cancer.
Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and Ahmes, and according to inscriptions in Djeser-Djeseru at Deir el-Bahari, Hatshepsut was sired by the god Amun himself, and that her godly father had always intended she rule Egypt. But it was her half-brother Thutmose II who took the throne after their father’s death, with her at his side as his wife – as God’s Wife. She had one daughter with her brother-husband, their child named Neferure. In her youth, Hatshepsut was thought to have been a warrior.
Hatshepsut's mortuary temple, Djeser-Djeseru at Deir el-Bahari (source Dan Lundberg: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20111106_Egypt_0879_Thebes_Deir_el-Bahri.jpg)
After Thutmose II’s death (possibly from heart disease), Hatshepsut quickly had his son by another wife, Thutmose III, placed on the throne. But, as she was not King’s Mother, she could not officially rule on his behalf. It has been suggested that it was after Isis’ death, Thutmose III’s mother, that Hatshepsut decided to take the throne. But the date of Isis’ death is not known. Nor is it known why Hatshepsut took the throne. There are theories: that Hatshepsut had already been ruling the throne from the shadows for years; that she may have needed to take power in order to hold the throne for Thutmose III; that she had wanted to consolidate her own power and ruling as king achieved this.
Whatever Hatshepsut’s reasons, she did decide to take the throne. And she never handed it back. Once a king, always a king. Pharaohs were gods. While she officially had a co-regent in Thutmose III, he didn’t ascend to the throne until after her death. There are also theories – some quite unflattering to him and women in general, with popular ones focusing on the evil stepmother role – as to why he didn’t fight for the throne, why he didn’t take back what was his by force. But he never did. And he later became known as the Napoleon of Egypt. So here was a man, cunning, clever, a fighter, who allowed his step-mother/aunt to rule Egypt for over two decades – two prosperous decades.
And rule she did. Hatshepsut’s official name was Maatkare, which is thought to mean ‘Maat is the soul of Ra’ or even ‘the proper manifestation of the sun’s life force’. The word maat meant divine order. She took on the official regalia of her office, which was designed for male kings. In life, the Pharaoh was associated with the god Horus; in death, Osiris. So while females could be kings – and in fact, ‘king’ was not a gendered word for the Egyptians – the gods associated with Pharaoh were male.
It was only after her death, during the end of Thutmose III’s reign – some 20 years after her demise – that the process of wiping Hatshepsut’s name from the records began: her statues were smashed, her cartouches chiselled from walls. While originally thought to have been a rebellion against the woman who had usurped his throne, it is now proposed that Thutmose III may have undertaken the process to provide greater legitimacy for his son, Amenhotep II.
But despite this, no one could completely erase the 22 year reign of a female king who ruled Egypt through an undeniably prosperous era and who was one of the greatest builders the country had ever known.
Hatshepsut, female king and god.
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Everyone has heard of Tutankhamun, the boy king of Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty. Tutankhamun wasn’t famous for being a pharaoh, though. He was famous because Edward Carter and Lord Carnarvon discovered his nearly intact tomb in 1922. In reality, he was little more than a blip on the dynastic radar, especially as he was overshadowed by his father/stepfather, Akhenaten. Akhenaten wasn’t the only interesting figure of the Eighteenth Dynasty, however. The Eighteenth Dynasty was populated by fascinating kings. No one more so than Hatshepsut, the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty, a figure who ruled during the fifteenth century BCE.
A woman king.
Limestone statue of Hatshepsut wearing male clothing, but with a female form (statue is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, source en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hatshepsut.jp
Hatshepsut wasn’t the first woman to become king (or Pharaoh as it became in the Eighteenth Dynasty), nor was she the last. But out of the 31 dynasties of Egyptian rulers, only six of the kings were known to be women - although this number is contested. It could potentially be higher, with Akhenaten’s wife, Nefertiti, also suspected as having ruled after his death. But most of these women came to the throne, not as King’s Mother (a title of power and prestige) but as king. And these women were not afforded the praise and honour of King’s Mother after their deaths – these women had their names obliterated from the record, images destroyed and their monuments reinscribed.
Hatshepsut has long been regaled as one of the most successful pharaohs of Egypt and was renowned for her building projects, but she remained a forgotten figure of history for thousands of years. For the non-archaeologist/history buff, it is only in recent times that you may have heard of her, as archaeologists claim to have discovered her body on the floor of the tomb of her wet-nurse, Sitre-Re. The body had been left without even a coffin for protection. Analysis regarding a tooth found with remains in canopic jars (funerary containers that hold viscera) found a link between the jar and a mummy found within the tomb. The mummy was thought to have died in middle age, the woman suffering from diabetes and bone cancer.
Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and Ahmes, and according to inscriptions in Djeser-Djeseru at Deir el-Bahari, Hatshepsut was sired by the god Amun himself, and that her godly father had always intended she rule Egypt. But it was her half-brother Thutmose II who took the throne after their father’s death, with her at his side as his wife – as God’s Wife. She had one daughter with her brother-husband, their child named Neferure. In her youth, Hatshepsut was thought to have been a warrior.
Hatshepsut's mortuary temple, Djeser-Djeseru at Deir el-Bahari (source Dan Lundberg: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20111106_Egypt_0879_Thebes_Deir_el-Bahri.jpg)
After Thutmose II’s death (possibly from heart disease), Hatshepsut quickly had his son by another wife, Thutmose III, placed on the throne. But, as she was not King’s Mother, she could not officially rule on his behalf. It has been suggested that it was after Isis’ death, Thutmose III’s mother, that Hatshepsut decided to take the throne. But the date of Isis’ death is not known. Nor is it known why Hatshepsut took the throne. There are theories: that Hatshepsut had already been ruling the throne from the shadows for years; that she may have needed to take power in order to hold the throne for Thutmose III; that she had wanted to consolidate her own power and ruling as king achieved this.
Whatever Hatshepsut’s reasons, she did decide to take the throne. And she never handed it back. Once a king, always a king. Pharaohs were gods. While she officially had a co-regent in Thutmose III, he didn’t ascend to the throne until after her death. There are also theories – some quite unflattering to him and women in general, with popular ones focusing on the evil stepmother role – as to why he didn’t fight for the throne, why he didn’t take back what was his by force. But he never did. And he later became known as the Napoleon of Egypt. So here was a man, cunning, clever, a fighter, who allowed his step-mother/aunt to rule Egypt for over two decades – two prosperous decades.
And rule she did. Hatshepsut’s official name was Maatkare, which is thought to mean ‘Maat is the soul of Ra’ or even ‘the proper manifestation of the sun’s life force’. The word maat meant divine order. She took on the official regalia of her office, which was designed for male kings. In life, the Pharaoh was associated with the god Horus; in death, Osiris. So while females could be kings – and in fact, ‘king’ was not a gendered word for the Egyptians – the gods associated with Pharaoh were male.
It was only after her death, during the end of Thutmose III’s reign – some 20 years after her demise – that the process of wiping Hatshepsut’s name from the records began: her statues were smashed, her cartouches chiselled from walls. While originally thought to have been a rebellion against the woman who had usurped his throne, it is now proposed that Thutmose III may have undertaken the process to provide greater legitimacy for his son, Amenhotep II.
But despite this, no one could completely erase the 22 year reign of a female king who ruled Egypt through an undeniably prosperous era and who was one of the greatest builders the country had ever known.
Hatshepsut, female king and god.
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Dennis Cantwell and Lorian Baker (1991) studied the overlap between language disorders and ADHD in preschoolers referred to a clinic for speech or language problems. Almost all had serious problems relative to others of their age in being able to understand what was said to them or in being able to use verbal language to express themselves. Nineteen percent of these children with speech or language impairments also met diagnostic criteria for ADD, almost fourfold the baseline incidence of ADD reported at that time in the general population.
Joseph Beitchman and others (1996) did a longer-term study of preschool children with language disorders. In that sample, too, ADHD was found to be the most common psychiatric disorder, occurring in 30 percent of the preschoolers who had speech or language disorders. Findings from Beitchman's long-term study showed that children with impaired language function at age five were much more likely than others to have a psychiatric disorder at age twelve. Children with severe difficulty in using language and in understanding what others say to them are more likely to have significant behavioral problems; they are also likely to have poorer social skills. Communication difficulties may thus contribute eventually to failure in school or employment.
Because psychologists and psychiatrists generally have little training in speech and language impairments, the important role of these functions in academic, social, and vocational difficulties may often be overlooked. Many mental health workers assume that interpersonal problems are always caused by unrecognized emotional conflicts. For some individuals, however, interpersonal difficulties are more fundamentally rooted in an inability clearly to say what one is thinking or to understand correctly what others are trying to say.
Most physicians and mental health clinicians are similarly not educated to understand specific learning disorders (LD) that often overlap with ADHD. There are three major types of learning disorders: reading disorder, mathematics disorder, and disorder of written expression.
At age twelve, George was in fifth grade. He was a well-behaved boy who wanted very much to do well in school. His grades in math were always high, but he generally did poorly in reading and in any other classwork that involved reading. He was bright. On IQ tests he scored in the high average range. He had a strong vocabulary for listening and for speaking, but his reading vocabulary was very small. He could not read many words that were familiar when spoken to him. He could memorize a short list of words for weekly spelling tests, but he could not remember to spell those words correctly after the test and he was generally a very poor speller.
When called on to read aloud, George often mispronounced easy words and was tediously slow and halting. Despite getting extra help for reading since first grade, George could not sound out unfamiliar words. His mind seemed unable to retain what he had been taught about what sounds are associated with specific combinations of letters. He could not grasp the basics of phonics and had an intense dislike for reading because he found it so tedious and embarrassing.
Sally Shaywitz (2003) has described how most children, unlike George, learn to "break the code" in order to learn to read.
The very first discovery a child makes on his way to reading is the realization that spoken words have parts. Suddenly a child appreciates that the word he hears comes apart into smaller pieces of sound; he has developed phonemic awareness .. . the ability to notice, identify and manipulate the individual sounds—phonemes—in spoken words. (p. 51)
Shaywitz noted that 70 to 80 percent of American children learn how to translate the code of written letters into spoken sounds without much difficulty. The remaining 20 to 30 percent have varying levels of persisting difficulty in learning to convert combinations of letters into spoken words. It is this impairment in learning to process phonemes, not the tendency to reverse letters and numbers, that is the major ingredient in dyslexia, another name for reading disorder.
There is strong evidence to suggest that dyslexia is associated with specific impairments in brain function. Sally Shaywitz and Bennett Shaywitz (2002) used functional MRI imaging to study the brains of dyslexic children compared to nonimpaired readers. In the brains of the dyslexic boys and girls, they found evidence of disrupted functioning in specific left hemisphere circuits that have been shown to be crucial for reading.
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Dennis Cantwell and Lorian Baker (1991) studied the overlap between language disorders and ADHD in preschoolers referred to a clinic for speech or language problems. Almost all had serious problems relative to others of their age in being able to understand what was said to them or in being able to use verbal language to express themselves. Nineteen percent of these children with speech or language impairments also met diagnostic criteria for ADD, almost fourfold the baseline incidence of ADD reported at that time in the general population.
Joseph Beitchman and others (1996) did a longer-term study of preschool children with language disorders. In that sample, too, ADHD was found to be the most common psychiatric disorder, occurring in 30 percent of the preschoolers who had speech or language disorders. Findings from Beitchman's long-term study showed that children with impaired language function at age five were much more likely than others to have a psychiatric disorder at age twelve. Children with severe difficulty in using language and in understanding what others say to them are more likely to have significant behavioral problems; they are also likely to have poorer social skills. Communication difficulties may thus contribute eventually to failure in school or employment.
Because psychologists and psychiatrists generally have little training in speech and language impairments, the important role of these functions in academic, social, and vocational difficulties may often be overlooked. Many mental health workers assume that interpersonal problems are always caused by unrecognized emotional conflicts. For some individuals, however, interpersonal difficulties are more fundamentally rooted in an inability clearly to say what one is thinking or to understand correctly what others are trying to say.
Most physicians and mental health clinicians are similarly not educated to understand specific learning disorders (LD) that often overlap with ADHD. There are three major types of learning disorders: reading disorder, mathematics disorder, and disorder of written expression.
At age twelve, George was in fifth grade. He was a well-behaved boy who wanted very much to do well in school. His grades in math were always high, but he generally did poorly in reading and in any other classwork that involved reading. He was bright. On IQ tests he scored in the high average range. He had a strong vocabulary for listening and for speaking, but his reading vocabulary was very small. He could not read many words that were familiar when spoken to him. He could memorize a short list of words for weekly spelling tests, but he could not remember to spell those words correctly after the test and he was generally a very poor speller.
When called on to read aloud, George often mispronounced easy words and was tediously slow and halting. Despite getting extra help for reading since first grade, George could not sound out unfamiliar words. His mind seemed unable to retain what he had been taught about what sounds are associated with specific combinations of letters. He could not grasp the basics of phonics and had an intense dislike for reading because he found it so tedious and embarrassing.
Sally Shaywitz (2003) has described how most children, unlike George, learn to "break the code" in order to learn to read.
The very first discovery a child makes on his way to reading is the realization that spoken words have parts. Suddenly a child appreciates that the word he hears comes apart into smaller pieces of sound; he has developed phonemic awareness .. . the ability to notice, identify and manipulate the individual sounds—phonemes—in spoken words. (p. 51)
Shaywitz noted that 70 to 80 percent of American children learn how to translate the code of written letters into spoken sounds without much difficulty. The remaining 20 to 30 percent have varying levels of persisting difficulty in learning to convert combinations of letters into spoken words. It is this impairment in learning to process phonemes, not the tendency to reverse letters and numbers, that is the major ingredient in dyslexia, another name for reading disorder.
There is strong evidence to suggest that dyslexia is associated with specific impairments in brain function. Sally Shaywitz and Bennett Shaywitz (2002) used functional MRI imaging to study the brains of dyslexic children compared to nonimpaired readers. In the brains of the dyslexic boys and girls, they found evidence of disrupted functioning in specific left hemisphere circuits that have been shown to be crucial for reading.
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ENGLISH
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New Year’s Day is the first day of the year, in the Gregorian calendar, and falls exactly one week after the Christmas Day of the previous year.
New Year’s Day is a public holiday in all countries that observe the Gregorian calendar, with the exception of Israel. This makes it the world’s most widely observed public holiday.
Some countries may also have January 2nd as an additional New Year holiday.
Countries who still use the Julian Calendar observe New Year’s Day on January 14th.
It is traditionally celebrated with firework displays across the globe at 00:00 in the local time zones.
New Year’s Day was originally observed on March 15th in the old Roman Calendar. When January and February were added during one of the many attempts to clean up the calendar, they were actually added to the end of the year.
The start of the year was fixed at January 1st in 153 BCE, by two Roman consuls. The month was named Janus after the name of the Roman god of doors and gates. Janus had two faces, one facing forward and one looking back, a fitting name for the month at the start of the year.
During the Middle Ages, a number of different Christian feast dates were used to mark the New Year, though calendars often continued to display the months in columns running from January to December in the Roman fashion.
It wasn’t until 1582 when the Roman Catholic Church officially adopted January 1st as the New Year.
Most countries in Western Europe had officially adopted January 1st as New Year’s Day even before they adopted the Gregorian calendar.
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New Year’s Day is the first day of the year, in the Gregorian calendar, and falls exactly one week after the Christmas Day of the previous year.
New Year’s Day is a public holiday in all countries that observe the Gregorian calendar, with the exception of Israel. This makes it the world’s most widely observed public holiday.
Some countries may also have January 2nd as an additional New Year holiday.
Countries who still use the Julian Calendar observe New Year’s Day on January 14th.
It is traditionally celebrated with firework displays across the globe at 00:00 in the local time zones.
New Year’s Day was originally observed on March 15th in the old Roman Calendar. When January and February were added during one of the many attempts to clean up the calendar, they were actually added to the end of the year.
The start of the year was fixed at January 1st in 153 BCE, by two Roman consuls. The month was named Janus after the name of the Roman god of doors and gates. Janus had two faces, one facing forward and one looking back, a fitting name for the month at the start of the year.
During the Middle Ages, a number of different Christian feast dates were used to mark the New Year, though calendars often continued to display the months in columns running from January to December in the Roman fashion.
It wasn’t until 1582 when the Roman Catholic Church officially adopted January 1st as the New Year.
Most countries in Western Europe had officially adopted January 1st as New Year’s Day even before they adopted the Gregorian calendar.
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ENGLISH
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What was ''court'' in tudor times?
i was watching the film ''the other boleyn girl'', based on the book by phillipa gregory, and i saw that mary boleyn and william carey (or carey..) were summoned to court, because the king desired her..
but, what exactly was court? was it like the senate or parliment today?
- 9 years agoFavorite Answer
This is the time of terrible Tudors we are talking about! Like in the Tudor horrible history book, "You don't tangle with a Tudor!". The Tudors were autocrats. They were very effective power brokers and hence survived. Forget the court being democratic or like a senate/parliament.
So as to your question: what was the court?
The court was the extended household of the monarch. It went wherever he/she went. Before modern times the monarch was the fountain head of wealth, land, power and jobs. Serve the King/Queen well and you might be rewarded. Therefore the court was the place to be. A chance to advance.
It was comprised of nobility and staff.
The nobility had land and wealth. In return for this land and hence wealth they owed the King/Queen there loyalty and service. In order to get more fields of green and coin they had to effective serve the Crown through war, governance, administration or other.
However the court wasn't just the warren of blue bloods. Oh no. Tudors unlike previous monarchs also relied on the middle classes and commoners. If they were very good at there job, that is.
For example Thomas Wosley, the son of a merchant rose to huge power under Henry VIII. Similarly Thomas Cromwell also rose to high office despite being the son of a brewer and butcher. However both these examples fell to ruin. Wosley died before trial and Cromwell was executed. When you served tyrants like the Tudors your life was on the line. If you angered them or failed them, then you could just be desposed off as fast as 3,2,1.
A significate part of the court was the Privy Council which was the top executive body of the Tudor monarchy from Henry VIII onwards (they met in the King's Privy Lodgings hence the name). When the Crown was away from London one group stayed in London and another group went with the Crown. It was the group with the Crown that gave the orders to London. The Privy Council still exists today although in a much more waterdown sort of way.
So there you have it. The Court - the powerhouse of Tudor politics.Source(s): Websites: BBC website Spartacus History Learning Site Wikipedia Books: Elizabeth by David Starkey
- 9 years ago
The court was some sort of inner social circle of the monarch, people who were part of the court were usually very high nobility people and they had great influence on government issues. They were usually as rich as they could be of course.
- 9 years ago
"court" was referred to as the ruler's formal assembly in his palace, castle, or home where people were to pay homage to him. This would usually be where his entourage would be close to his side.
Someone report Barrie Jesensky for spam!
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- Anonymous9 years ago
It basically means the King's presence or residence.
- LomaxLv 79 years ago
More the cabinet. It was all the officials who attended on the king, and accompanied on his travels.
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What was ''court'' in tudor times?
i was watching the film ''the other boleyn girl'', based on the book by phillipa gregory, and i saw that mary boleyn and william carey (or carey..) were summoned to court, because the king desired her..
but, what exactly was court? was it like the senate or parliment today?
- 9 years agoFavorite Answer
This is the time of terrible Tudors we are talking about! Like in the Tudor horrible history book, "You don't tangle with a Tudor!". The Tudors were autocrats. They were very effective power brokers and hence survived. Forget the court being democratic or like a senate/parliament.
So as to your question: what was the court?
The court was the extended household of the monarch. It went wherever he/she went. Before modern times the monarch was the fountain head of wealth, land, power and jobs. Serve the King/Queen well and you might be rewarded. Therefore the court was the place to be. A chance to advance.
It was comprised of nobility and staff.
The nobility had land and wealth. In return for this land and hence wealth they owed the King/Queen there loyalty and service. In order to get more fields of green and coin they had to effective serve the Crown through war, governance, administration or other.
However the court wasn't just the warren of blue bloods. Oh no. Tudors unlike previous monarchs also relied on the middle classes and commoners. If they were very good at there job, that is.
For example Thomas Wosley, the son of a merchant rose to huge power under Henry VIII. Similarly Thomas Cromwell also rose to high office despite being the son of a brewer and butcher. However both these examples fell to ruin. Wosley died before trial and Cromwell was executed. When you served tyrants like the Tudors your life was on the line. If you angered them or failed them, then you could just be desposed off as fast as 3,2,1.
A significate part of the court was the Privy Council which was the top executive body of the Tudor monarchy from Henry VIII onwards (they met in the King's Privy Lodgings hence the name). When the Crown was away from London one group stayed in London and another group went with the Crown. It was the group with the Crown that gave the orders to London. The Privy Council still exists today although in a much more waterdown sort of way.
So there you have it. The Court - the powerhouse of Tudor politics.Source(s): Websites: BBC website Spartacus History Learning Site Wikipedia Books: Elizabeth by David Starkey
- 9 years ago
The court was some sort of inner social circle of the monarch, people who were part of the court were usually very high nobility people and they had great influence on government issues. They were usually as rich as they could be of course.
- 9 years ago
"court" was referred to as the ruler's formal assembly in his palace, castle, or home where people were to pay homage to him. This would usually be where his entourage would be close to his side.
Someone report Barrie Jesensky for spam!
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- Anonymous9 years ago
It basically means the King's presence or residence.
- LomaxLv 79 years ago
More the cabinet. It was all the officials who attended on the king, and accompanied on his travels.
| 744
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Fort Amsterdam was constructed in between 1635 and 1636 by the Dutch West India Company (DWIC) under the leadership of admiral Johan van Walbeek. The fort was built to defend the island from the Spanish troops.
In 1634 the DWIC conquered the island of Curaçao which was then a Spanish possession. To prevent the Spanish troops from attacking back they decided to build the Fort Amsterdam. The fort also functioned as the local headquarters of the DWIC. Fort Amsterdam is the oldest fort on Curaçao, there is a total of eight forts spread across the island.
The Fort Amsterdam was built very strategic, it’s located at the entrance of the Sint Anna Bay (the harbor of Curacao, located in Willemstad). The fort was built by Dutch soldiers and slaves from Angola. It’s was designed with a three-meter-wide wall and five bastions, however only four were built. The fort had several cannons that were located seaward.
In the early years everyone lived in the Fort Amsterdam. Gradually there was built around the fort and people moved outside the city of Willemstad. Currently the fort is used by the government of Curacao as the seat of the government. Furthermore, within the walls of the fort, are the oldest church of Curaçao (1769) and the governor's residence. The Fort Amsterdam is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Fort Amsterdam is open daily.
Do you want to visit the church and the museum: They are open from Monday - Friday from 10.00 am - 1.30 pm.
The fort church is also open on Saturday from 9.30 am - 11.00 am.
Have you visited Fort Amsterdam after reading this article? Please share your experience with us!
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Fort Amsterdam was constructed in between 1635 and 1636 by the Dutch West India Company (DWIC) under the leadership of admiral Johan van Walbeek. The fort was built to defend the island from the Spanish troops.
In 1634 the DWIC conquered the island of Curaçao which was then a Spanish possession. To prevent the Spanish troops from attacking back they decided to build the Fort Amsterdam. The fort also functioned as the local headquarters of the DWIC. Fort Amsterdam is the oldest fort on Curaçao, there is a total of eight forts spread across the island.
The Fort Amsterdam was built very strategic, it’s located at the entrance of the Sint Anna Bay (the harbor of Curacao, located in Willemstad). The fort was built by Dutch soldiers and slaves from Angola. It’s was designed with a three-meter-wide wall and five bastions, however only four were built. The fort had several cannons that were located seaward.
In the early years everyone lived in the Fort Amsterdam. Gradually there was built around the fort and people moved outside the city of Willemstad. Currently the fort is used by the government of Curacao as the seat of the government. Furthermore, within the walls of the fort, are the oldest church of Curaçao (1769) and the governor's residence. The Fort Amsterdam is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Fort Amsterdam is open daily.
Do you want to visit the church and the museum: They are open from Monday - Friday from 10.00 am - 1.30 pm.
The fort church is also open on Saturday from 9.30 am - 11.00 am.
Have you visited Fort Amsterdam after reading this article? Please share your experience with us!
| 379
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
In 1920, as part of ceremonies in Britain to commemorate the dead of World War One, there was a proposal that the body of an Unknown Soldier, lying in an unmarked grave abroad, be returned to England for burial in Westminster Abbey.
This was to symbolise all those who had died for their country, but whose place of death was not known, or whose body remained unidentified and whose family had no grave to visit.
“Those parents and wives who had lost men to war didn’t have anything tangible to grieve at, so the unknown warrior represented their loss,” says Terry Charman, a historian at the Imperial War Museum
It is thought that the idea came from the reverend David Railton, who had served as a chaplain on the Western Front. There are a number of versions of how the selection of the Unknown Warrior was made, but it is generally agreed that;
The unknown warrior’s body was chosen from a number of British servicemen exhumed from four battle areas – the Aisne, the Somme, Arras and Ypres. These remains were brought to the chapel at St Pol on the night of 7 November 1920, where the officer in charge of troops in France and Flanders, Brig Gen L J Wyatt, went with a Col Gell.
Neither had any idea where the bodies, laid on stretchers and covered by union jacks, were from.
“The point was that it literally could have been anybody,” says Mr Charman. “It could have been an earl or a duke’s son, or a labourer from South Africa.
“The idea really caught the public mood, as it was a very democratic thing that it could have been someone from any rank.”
General Wyatt selected one body – it has been suggested he may have been blindfolded while making his choice – and the two officers placed it in a plain coffin and sealed it. The other bodies were reburied.
The next day the dead soldier began the journey to his final resting place. The coffin was taken to Boulogne and placed inside another coffin, made of oak from Hampton Court and sent over from England. Its plate bore the inscription: “A British Warrior who fell in the Great War 1914-1918 for King and Country”.
This second coffin had a 16th Century sword, taken from King George V’s private collection, fixed on top.
The body was then transported to Dover via the destroyer HMS Verdun and when the ship was sighted off the coast at Dover, a gun salute was sounded. It was then taken by train to London.
On the morning of 11 November 1920 – two years to the day after the war had ended, horses drew the body of the unknown warrior on a gun carriage in a procession through London to the Cenotaph – a right usually only granted to the rank of Field Marshall or above.
The new war memorial designed by Lutyens on Whitehall , known now as the Cenotaph, was then unveiled by George V.
At 1100 there was a two-minute silence, and the body was then taken to nearby Westminster Abbey where it was buried, passing through a guard of honour of 100 holders of the Victoria Cross.
In a particularly poignant gesture, the grave was filled with earth from the main French battlefields, and the black marble stone was Belgian.
In 1923, in memory of her brother Fergus, whose body was never recovered from the Battle of Loos in 1915, Lady Elizabeth Bowes Lyon (the Queen Mother,) chose to lay her bridal bouquet at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and this has become a touching tradition that all royal brides now follow.
In the week after the burial of the Unknown Soldier, an estimated 1,250,000 people visited the Tomb, and the site is now one of the most visited war graves in the world. The text inscribed on the tomb is taken from the bible (2 Chronicles 24:16):
‘They buried him among the kings, because he had done good toward God and toward his house’.
Head of History
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In 1920, as part of ceremonies in Britain to commemorate the dead of World War One, there was a proposal that the body of an Unknown Soldier, lying in an unmarked grave abroad, be returned to England for burial in Westminster Abbey.
This was to symbolise all those who had died for their country, but whose place of death was not known, or whose body remained unidentified and whose family had no grave to visit.
“Those parents and wives who had lost men to war didn’t have anything tangible to grieve at, so the unknown warrior represented their loss,” says Terry Charman, a historian at the Imperial War Museum
It is thought that the idea came from the reverend David Railton, who had served as a chaplain on the Western Front. There are a number of versions of how the selection of the Unknown Warrior was made, but it is generally agreed that;
The unknown warrior’s body was chosen from a number of British servicemen exhumed from four battle areas – the Aisne, the Somme, Arras and Ypres. These remains were brought to the chapel at St Pol on the night of 7 November 1920, where the officer in charge of troops in France and Flanders, Brig Gen L J Wyatt, went with a Col Gell.
Neither had any idea where the bodies, laid on stretchers and covered by union jacks, were from.
“The point was that it literally could have been anybody,” says Mr Charman. “It could have been an earl or a duke’s son, or a labourer from South Africa.
“The idea really caught the public mood, as it was a very democratic thing that it could have been someone from any rank.”
General Wyatt selected one body – it has been suggested he may have been blindfolded while making his choice – and the two officers placed it in a plain coffin and sealed it. The other bodies were reburied.
The next day the dead soldier began the journey to his final resting place. The coffin was taken to Boulogne and placed inside another coffin, made of oak from Hampton Court and sent over from England. Its plate bore the inscription: “A British Warrior who fell in the Great War 1914-1918 for King and Country”.
This second coffin had a 16th Century sword, taken from King George V’s private collection, fixed on top.
The body was then transported to Dover via the destroyer HMS Verdun and when the ship was sighted off the coast at Dover, a gun salute was sounded. It was then taken by train to London.
On the morning of 11 November 1920 – two years to the day after the war had ended, horses drew the body of the unknown warrior on a gun carriage in a procession through London to the Cenotaph – a right usually only granted to the rank of Field Marshall or above.
The new war memorial designed by Lutyens on Whitehall , known now as the Cenotaph, was then unveiled by George V.
At 1100 there was a two-minute silence, and the body was then taken to nearby Westminster Abbey where it was buried, passing through a guard of honour of 100 holders of the Victoria Cross.
In a particularly poignant gesture, the grave was filled with earth from the main French battlefields, and the black marble stone was Belgian.
In 1923, in memory of her brother Fergus, whose body was never recovered from the Battle of Loos in 1915, Lady Elizabeth Bowes Lyon (the Queen Mother,) chose to lay her bridal bouquet at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and this has become a touching tradition that all royal brides now follow.
In the week after the burial of the Unknown Soldier, an estimated 1,250,000 people visited the Tomb, and the site is now one of the most visited war graves in the world. The text inscribed on the tomb is taken from the bible (2 Chronicles 24:16):
‘They buried him among the kings, because he had done good toward God and toward his house’.
Head of History
| 860
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ENGLISH
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The Korean War was fought between North Korea and South Korea. The Soviet Union and China supported North Korea while the United Nations supported South Korea with the United States being the principal supporter. About 21 nations contributed military personnel to the UN forces with the US providing approximately 90% of the military personnel. President Truman was in office when the Korean War broke out on June 25th, 1950.
Onset of the Korean War
The Korean War was a result of the Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union, and it started following a series of confrontations along the border. Korea had been divided into two different independent states in 1948; North Korea was established as a socialist state under the communist leader Kim II-sung while South Korea was established as a capitalist state an anti-communist under the leadership of Syngman Rhee. Each of the two states of Korea claimed to be the legitimate government of the entire Korean Peninsula, and none recognized the border as permanent. The disagreement between the two states escalated into a full-on war. The military from North Korea under the support of China and the Soviet Union crossed the border into South Korea. The Security Council of the UN authorized the dispatch of UN forces to Korea to repel the North Korean invasion.
Leaders During the Korean War
North Korea: Kim Il-Sung
Kim II-Sung was North Korea's first leader who was at the helm of the leadership in the country since it was established in 1948 until 1994 when he died. From 1948 Sung was the country’s premier until 1972, and from 1972 to 1994 he was the president of North Korea. Sung came to power after the end of the Japanese rule in Korea in 1945 and became the longest-serving non-royal head of government in the 20th century having stayed in the office for more than 38 years. He presided over North Korea as a communist country, and he established a publicly planned and owned economy, known as Juche ideology. Sung established close political and economic ties with the Soviet Union, and in the early 1960s, North Korea was enjoying a relatively higher standard of living compared to South Korea. However, in the early 1970s, South Korea had become stable politically and began to establish itself as an economic powerhouse which was underpinned by the American and the Japanese investments together with military assistance and internal economic development. North Korea received aid and subsidies from the Soviet Union until the fall of the USSR in 1991. As a result, it affected the economic situation in North Korea resulting in widespread famine experienced in 1994.
South Korea: Syngman Rhee
Syngman Rhee was the first head of state of the provisional government of the Republic of Korea and later from 1948 to 1960 he was the president of South Korea. He served for two terms, and his leadership was affected but the tensions of the Cold War in the Korean Peninsula particularly between the US and the Soviet Union. Rhee was the leader of South Korea throughout the Korean War, and his leadership came to an end after he resigned following the protest against the disputed elections. He was an anti-communist leader, and he was a dictator as well as an authoritarian, and it is believed to have ordered extrajudicial killings of thousands of civilians who were suspected of being communists during his early years as the leader of South Korea and particularly during the Korean War. He died in exile while in Honolulu, Hawaii.
United States: Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman was the 33rd US president, and he was in office between 1945 and 1953. Truman referred the war as an act of policing because the country did not formally declare war against its opponents, but rather carried out under the backing of the UN. It was President Truman who ordered the US military which includes the air force and the navy forces to help South Korea. The Soviets accused the US of engaging in armed involvement in aid of South Korea. The Korean war has been known as one of the unknown wars or the forgotten wars due to the publicity it received after or even during the war in contrast to World War II which preceded it or the Vietnam War which came after.
The Aftermath of the War
Both leaders from North and South Korea wanted a united Korea under their respective governments, but they were not successful. After the war, a new stage was set for the Cold War between the two superpowers of the US and the Soviet Union which has been known as the proxy war where the two countries fight in a third country. The same scenario was played during the Vietnam War and the Soviet War in Afghanistan. It was a similar case also in Angola and Greece among other regions in the world. The Korean War was the first case where the UN participated outside the Western World. The war significantly affected the two countries where it led to massive losses and damage to the infrastructure and the economy as a whole.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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The Korean War was fought between North Korea and South Korea. The Soviet Union and China supported North Korea while the United Nations supported South Korea with the United States being the principal supporter. About 21 nations contributed military personnel to the UN forces with the US providing approximately 90% of the military personnel. President Truman was in office when the Korean War broke out on June 25th, 1950.
Onset of the Korean War
The Korean War was a result of the Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union, and it started following a series of confrontations along the border. Korea had been divided into two different independent states in 1948; North Korea was established as a socialist state under the communist leader Kim II-sung while South Korea was established as a capitalist state an anti-communist under the leadership of Syngman Rhee. Each of the two states of Korea claimed to be the legitimate government of the entire Korean Peninsula, and none recognized the border as permanent. The disagreement between the two states escalated into a full-on war. The military from North Korea under the support of China and the Soviet Union crossed the border into South Korea. The Security Council of the UN authorized the dispatch of UN forces to Korea to repel the North Korean invasion.
Leaders During the Korean War
North Korea: Kim Il-Sung
Kim II-Sung was North Korea's first leader who was at the helm of the leadership in the country since it was established in 1948 until 1994 when he died. From 1948 Sung was the country’s premier until 1972, and from 1972 to 1994 he was the president of North Korea. Sung came to power after the end of the Japanese rule in Korea in 1945 and became the longest-serving non-royal head of government in the 20th century having stayed in the office for more than 38 years. He presided over North Korea as a communist country, and he established a publicly planned and owned economy, known as Juche ideology. Sung established close political and economic ties with the Soviet Union, and in the early 1960s, North Korea was enjoying a relatively higher standard of living compared to South Korea. However, in the early 1970s, South Korea had become stable politically and began to establish itself as an economic powerhouse which was underpinned by the American and the Japanese investments together with military assistance and internal economic development. North Korea received aid and subsidies from the Soviet Union until the fall of the USSR in 1991. As a result, it affected the economic situation in North Korea resulting in widespread famine experienced in 1994.
South Korea: Syngman Rhee
Syngman Rhee was the first head of state of the provisional government of the Republic of Korea and later from 1948 to 1960 he was the president of South Korea. He served for two terms, and his leadership was affected but the tensions of the Cold War in the Korean Peninsula particularly between the US and the Soviet Union. Rhee was the leader of South Korea throughout the Korean War, and his leadership came to an end after he resigned following the protest against the disputed elections. He was an anti-communist leader, and he was a dictator as well as an authoritarian, and it is believed to have ordered extrajudicial killings of thousands of civilians who were suspected of being communists during his early years as the leader of South Korea and particularly during the Korean War. He died in exile while in Honolulu, Hawaii.
United States: Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman was the 33rd US president, and he was in office between 1945 and 1953. Truman referred the war as an act of policing because the country did not formally declare war against its opponents, but rather carried out under the backing of the UN. It was President Truman who ordered the US military which includes the air force and the navy forces to help South Korea. The Soviets accused the US of engaging in armed involvement in aid of South Korea. The Korean war has been known as one of the unknown wars or the forgotten wars due to the publicity it received after or even during the war in contrast to World War II which preceded it or the Vietnam War which came after.
The Aftermath of the War
Both leaders from North and South Korea wanted a united Korea under their respective governments, but they were not successful. After the war, a new stage was set for the Cold War between the two superpowers of the US and the Soviet Union which has been known as the proxy war where the two countries fight in a third country. The same scenario was played during the Vietnam War and the Soviet War in Afghanistan. It was a similar case also in Angola and Greece among other regions in the world. The Korean War was the first case where the UN participated outside the Western World. The war significantly affected the two countries where it led to massive losses and damage to the infrastructure and the economy as a whole.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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Name, age and gender are three important pillars on which your child’s safety and social standing depend. For your child to perceive himself and be perceived as a member of society, it is important that he understand these three concepts. So, how can you help him understand these things?
Most kids learn how to say their name, age and gender as they start school and interact with other kids. However, here are a few ways in which you can speed up their learning and make sure their fundamentals are clear:
1. Explain to Him The Meaning of These Terms
Even though this may seem elementary to you, the concept of name, age and gender is still abstract for your child. Explain to him that his name is what people use to call him, just as Mummy’s name is Mala, for instance. Likewise, explain to him that his age is how long it has been since he first came into the world. Finally, make the concept of gender clear by pointing towards boys and girls and indicating similarities and differences. This will let him understand what his gender is.
2. Call Him Using His Name and Encourage Him To Use It Too
For your child to clearly associate himself with his name, it is essential that you start making these references. Use his name in day to day conversation and also ask your family members to do this. For example, say “Rahul, can you get me a spoon from the kitchen?” Similarly, use his name when talking about him to other people (in his presence). So you can say “Rahul loves reading his red book.” This will help reinforce the connection between your child and his name.
3. Place His Name, Age and Gender Details Around The House
The house is a terrific learning environment for your kids as this is where they spend most of their time. Make sure there are many chances for them to see their name, age and gender around the house. You can put a placard with his name outside his room and label it “Rahul’s Room”. Similarly, you can put up his picture and brightly caption it with “Rahul is a 5 year old boy”. These visual reminders will help him remember the details better and also understand what they mean.
4. Make This Learning a Part of The Daily Routine
Nothing works like practice when it comes to learning! Understanding name, age and gender needs to be something they spend time on every day. For example, if there is a playdate or party at home, ask every child to say their name, age and gender before participating in every activity. Organise games that require them to address each other using their name. Say, if they are playing “Pass the Ball” and the ball stops at a child named Priya, the other kids have to say out loud – “Priya!” Likewise, make your instructions age and gender specific to help embed this concept in their mind. Say, “All five year olds, please come to the dining table.” Or, “All girls will now stand up.”
5. Play The “Knock, Knock” Game
This age-old game that involves asking “Knock, knock!” and “Who’s there?” can be a brilliant way to help your kids understand these concepts. You can play this with your child any time of the day. Use interesting question variation such as “Knock, knock!” “Is it a boy or a girl?” and “How old is the person behind the door?”
6. Use Pictures, Books And Music To Help You
Visual and sound guides are always a great help when it comes to kids. Use books that have pictures of kids and point toward them saying “That is a boy” or “She is a girl”. Similarly, when your child recites a poem about body parts, get him to point toward himself and say his name.
7. Prompt Him With The Answers To Encourage Him
As your child learns, he is sure to make mistakes and forget certain things even after you have gone through them repeatedly. Boost his confidence by prompting him when he seems to be getting confused. For example, if he is asked his name and it starts with “K”, you can make that sound. It will help him make the connection and pronounce his full name.
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Last Updated on
Name, age and gender are three important pillars on which your child’s safety and social standing depend. For your child to perceive himself and be perceived as a member of society, it is important that he understand these three concepts. So, how can you help him understand these things?
Most kids learn how to say their name, age and gender as they start school and interact with other kids. However, here are a few ways in which you can speed up their learning and make sure their fundamentals are clear:
1. Explain to Him The Meaning of These Terms
Even though this may seem elementary to you, the concept of name, age and gender is still abstract for your child. Explain to him that his name is what people use to call him, just as Mummy’s name is Mala, for instance. Likewise, explain to him that his age is how long it has been since he first came into the world. Finally, make the concept of gender clear by pointing towards boys and girls and indicating similarities and differences. This will let him understand what his gender is.
2. Call Him Using His Name and Encourage Him To Use It Too
For your child to clearly associate himself with his name, it is essential that you start making these references. Use his name in day to day conversation and also ask your family members to do this. For example, say “Rahul, can you get me a spoon from the kitchen?” Similarly, use his name when talking about him to other people (in his presence). So you can say “Rahul loves reading his red book.” This will help reinforce the connection between your child and his name.
3. Place His Name, Age and Gender Details Around The House
The house is a terrific learning environment for your kids as this is where they spend most of their time. Make sure there are many chances for them to see their name, age and gender around the house. You can put a placard with his name outside his room and label it “Rahul’s Room”. Similarly, you can put up his picture and brightly caption it with “Rahul is a 5 year old boy”. These visual reminders will help him remember the details better and also understand what they mean.
4. Make This Learning a Part of The Daily Routine
Nothing works like practice when it comes to learning! Understanding name, age and gender needs to be something they spend time on every day. For example, if there is a playdate or party at home, ask every child to say their name, age and gender before participating in every activity. Organise games that require them to address each other using their name. Say, if they are playing “Pass the Ball” and the ball stops at a child named Priya, the other kids have to say out loud – “Priya!” Likewise, make your instructions age and gender specific to help embed this concept in their mind. Say, “All five year olds, please come to the dining table.” Or, “All girls will now stand up.”
5. Play The “Knock, Knock” Game
This age-old game that involves asking “Knock, knock!” and “Who’s there?” can be a brilliant way to help your kids understand these concepts. You can play this with your child any time of the day. Use interesting question variation such as “Knock, knock!” “Is it a boy or a girl?” and “How old is the person behind the door?”
6. Use Pictures, Books And Music To Help You
Visual and sound guides are always a great help when it comes to kids. Use books that have pictures of kids and point toward them saying “That is a boy” or “She is a girl”. Similarly, when your child recites a poem about body parts, get him to point toward himself and say his name.
7. Prompt Him With The Answers To Encourage Him
As your child learns, he is sure to make mistakes and forget certain things even after you have gone through them repeatedly. Boost his confidence by prompting him when he seems to be getting confused. For example, if he is asked his name and it starts with “K”, you can make that sound. It will help him make the connection and pronounce his full name.
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Should women be aloud to vote? Are they qualified? How will this impact the south? Is voting a human right?
To review the controversy surrounding the passage of the 19th Amendment, students reviewed six documents to then debate from the perspective of Pro or Anti- Women's Suffrage. All sources (excluding the graphs) are excerpts from speeches leading up to the passage of the 19th Amendment, and students are asked to identify the bias, and gist for all. Students are also asked to highlight information from the sources that supports their argument.
For this activity with my 8th graders, I assigned their debate stance, and encouraged them to work with others who were arguing on their side to help prepare them to debate. Because of their skill level, and this was the first time doing such an activity, it took two days. With older, or more practiced students, it should only take one.
Prior to debating, students evaluated which sources and arguments would be most helpful to them and discussed their opening statements. This activity is designed to have every student debating with a partner in a classroom simultaneously, however you can adapt it as needed.
Included are resources, a guiding PowerPoint, as well as an instructional page.
Students like this because they like to argue, and liked the idea of using the documents with the purpose of debating, as opposed to just answering questions or writing a paper.
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Should women be aloud to vote? Are they qualified? How will this impact the south? Is voting a human right?
To review the controversy surrounding the passage of the 19th Amendment, students reviewed six documents to then debate from the perspective of Pro or Anti- Women's Suffrage. All sources (excluding the graphs) are excerpts from speeches leading up to the passage of the 19th Amendment, and students are asked to identify the bias, and gist for all. Students are also asked to highlight information from the sources that supports their argument.
For this activity with my 8th graders, I assigned their debate stance, and encouraged them to work with others who were arguing on their side to help prepare them to debate. Because of their skill level, and this was the first time doing such an activity, it took two days. With older, or more practiced students, it should only take one.
Prior to debating, students evaluated which sources and arguments would be most helpful to them and discussed their opening statements. This activity is designed to have every student debating with a partner in a classroom simultaneously, however you can adapt it as needed.
Included are resources, a guiding PowerPoint, as well as an instructional page.
Students like this because they like to argue, and liked the idea of using the documents with the purpose of debating, as opposed to just answering questions or writing a paper.
| 281
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
From Ohio History Central
no edit summary
| image = [[File:Ashley, James Monroe.jpg]]
| caption = Engraved portrait of James Monroe Ashley, ca. 1860-1869.
He worked as a clerk on boats on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and published newspapers in Portsmouth, Ohio. Eventually he settled in Toledo. He was elected to Congress as a Republican in 1859, and was re-elected four times, serving continuously until 1869.
<p>Ashley was born on November 24, 1822, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. When he was four years old, his family moved to Portsmouth, Ohio. Although Ashley's father was a bookbinder, many of his ancestors had been Baptist ministers. Ashley's father encouraged his son to pursue a career in the ministry. Ashley refused and ran away from home at the age of fourteen. He spent several years as a cabin boy on steamboats on the Ohio River. He then returned home to Portsmouth and learned the printing trade.</p>
<p>In 1851, Ashley left Portsmouth and moved to Toledo, where he opened a drugstore. He also became active in local politics and helped organize the Republican Party in the community. He quickly became prominent in the party and served as chairman of the Ohio Republican Convention in 1858. In that same year, Toledo voters elected Ashley to the United States House of Representatives. He was reelected four times until he lost in 1868 by fewer than one thousand votes.</p>
<p>In Congress, Ashley championed abolitionist causes. During the American Civil War, Ashley was the first representative to call for an amendment to the United States Constitution that would outlaw slavery. He submitted his proposal on December 14, 1863. His idea formed the basis of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. He served as the chairman of the House's Committee on Territories and helped organize Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, and Montana. Ashley strongly opposed Mormonism and polygamy, and he successfully campaigned to reduce the size of Utah to limit Mormon influence. Ashley also played a leading role in President Andrew Johnson's impeachment. In 1867, he demanded that the House Judiciary Committee begin an investigation of the President. Ashley lost reelection in 1868 principally because of his radical views on race issues. Increasingly, white Ohioans rejected government actions that would increase equality between whites and
<p>In 1869, President Ulysses Grant appointed Ashley governor of the Montana Territory. A majority of the people residing in Montana favored the Democratic Party and opposed Ashley's Radical Republican views. He served as governor for fifteen months and returned to Toledo after President Grant removed him from office. Ashley then became involved with railroad construction and helped to establish the Toledo, Ann Arbor & North Michigan Railroad. He ran for the United States House of Representatives in 1890 and 1892, but Ohioans refused to elect him in both elections. He died on September 16, 1896, in Alma, Michigan.</p>
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From Ohio History Central
no edit summary
| image = [[File:Ashley, James Monroe.jpg]]
| caption = Engraved portrait of James Monroe Ashley, ca. 1860-1869.
He worked as a clerk on boats on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and published newspapers in Portsmouth, Ohio. Eventually he settled in Toledo. He was elected to Congress as a Republican in 1859, and was re-elected four times, serving continuously until 1869.
<p>Ashley was born on November 24, 1822, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. When he was four years old, his family moved to Portsmouth, Ohio. Although Ashley's father was a bookbinder, many of his ancestors had been Baptist ministers. Ashley's father encouraged his son to pursue a career in the ministry. Ashley refused and ran away from home at the age of fourteen. He spent several years as a cabin boy on steamboats on the Ohio River. He then returned home to Portsmouth and learned the printing trade.</p>
<p>In 1851, Ashley left Portsmouth and moved to Toledo, where he opened a drugstore. He also became active in local politics and helped organize the Republican Party in the community. He quickly became prominent in the party and served as chairman of the Ohio Republican Convention in 1858. In that same year, Toledo voters elected Ashley to the United States House of Representatives. He was reelected four times until he lost in 1868 by fewer than one thousand votes.</p>
<p>In Congress, Ashley championed abolitionist causes. During the American Civil War, Ashley was the first representative to call for an amendment to the United States Constitution that would outlaw slavery. He submitted his proposal on December 14, 1863. His idea formed the basis of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. He served as the chairman of the House's Committee on Territories and helped organize Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, and Montana. Ashley strongly opposed Mormonism and polygamy, and he successfully campaigned to reduce the size of Utah to limit Mormon influence. Ashley also played a leading role in President Andrew Johnson's impeachment. In 1867, he demanded that the House Judiciary Committee begin an investigation of the President. Ashley lost reelection in 1868 principally because of his radical views on race issues. Increasingly, white Ohioans rejected government actions that would increase equality between whites and
<p>In 1869, President Ulysses Grant appointed Ashley governor of the Montana Territory. A majority of the people residing in Montana favored the Democratic Party and opposed Ashley's Radical Republican views. He served as governor for fifteen months and returned to Toledo after President Grant removed him from office. Ashley then became involved with railroad construction and helped to establish the Toledo, Ann Arbor & North Michigan Railroad. He ran for the United States House of Representatives in 1890 and 1892, but Ohioans refused to elect him in both elections. He died on September 16, 1896, in Alma, Michigan.</p>
| 649
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Leonardo da Vinci, who lived from 1452-1519, is well known for his anatomical sketches of the human body. He would dissect dead human remains and then draw what he saw. Dissection was completely illegal unless one was a physician, which da Vinci was not. It is believed that da Vinci would get a grave robbers, and eventually a hospital director to get him cadavers to study. da Vinci hid all of this anatomical drawings and kept them secret because of the illegal nature of what he was doing. He was able to identify not only muscles and bones, but also their functions in the body, which was an incredible breakthrough. Sadly, he was not able to share any of this knowledge with others, once again, because of the illegal nature of what he was doing. da Vinci believed only that in which he could observe, which is probably one of the reasons he resorted to dissection to learn more about the human body. He dissected bodies illegally at first, but eventually got special permission from the catholic church to dissect and sketch what he learned for a medical book. This is when he started to use the hospital director to get him bodies. Eventually, the hospital director got much ridicule over doing this and forbade dissections. As an artist and a great mind, da Vinci saw it important enough to ignore the law and study human anatomy via dissections. His deviance led to a better understanding of the human body, and is an important footnote in medical and art history.
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Leonardo da Vinci, who lived from 1452-1519, is well known for his anatomical sketches of the human body. He would dissect dead human remains and then draw what he saw. Dissection was completely illegal unless one was a physician, which da Vinci was not. It is believed that da Vinci would get a grave robbers, and eventually a hospital director to get him cadavers to study. da Vinci hid all of this anatomical drawings and kept them secret because of the illegal nature of what he was doing. He was able to identify not only muscles and bones, but also their functions in the body, which was an incredible breakthrough. Sadly, he was not able to share any of this knowledge with others, once again, because of the illegal nature of what he was doing. da Vinci believed only that in which he could observe, which is probably one of the reasons he resorted to dissection to learn more about the human body. He dissected bodies illegally at first, but eventually got special permission from the catholic church to dissect and sketch what he learned for a medical book. This is when he started to use the hospital director to get him bodies. Eventually, the hospital director got much ridicule over doing this and forbade dissections. As an artist and a great mind, da Vinci saw it important enough to ignore the law and study human anatomy via dissections. His deviance led to a better understanding of the human body, and is an important footnote in medical and art history.
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Early River Valley Civilizations
The four early river valley civilizations were the Sumerian/Mesopotamia, Egyptian, Harappan and Ancient China. All of these civilizations were located on fertile river beds to make planting crops much easier. They all made technological advances in their time span and set the ground for future generations. The Sumerian civilization also known as Mesopotamia/The Fertile Crescent is located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers…. this is how it gets its name the Fertile Crescent. The climate for this civilization is dry except in the area between the rivers.
The river flood at least once a year leaving a thick layer of mud called silt behind. There were draw backs to living hear though flooding was often unpredictable and very dry through the summer months. There were also no natural barriers so if you were a village out in the open you were likely to be attacked. Natural resources were also limited.
The solutions to some of these problems were; they built irrigation ditches, put up walls and traded with people around them for resources that they lacked. Mesopotamia’s government structure was a city state.
Each city in Mesopotamia had its own government, rulers, and warriors. Each city had its own god also in the center of each city-state was a ziggurat a place where that city-state’s god could be worshipped. Even though the cities all shared common culture they all functioned independently. The different rules often kept the ruling in the family for many generations this also known as a dynasty. The religion aspect of this civilization was polytheistic or believed in many gods. There were 3 branches to the social class priests and royalty were on top followed by wealthy merchants and ordinary workers.
Women in this civilization were not allowed to attend school making it so they could not read or write unless you were wealthy. Slaves were used and they were not free. This civilization invented one of the first forms of writing also known as Cuneiform. They also invented the wheel, the sail and the plow. They were also the first to use bronze. At about 2,000 BCE Mesopotamia became the Babylonian Empire. The capital of this empire was Babylon built on the Euphrates River. The reign of power was held by Hammurabi. He is most well-known for his laws “An eye for an eye, an ear for an ear. These laws were strictly followed though even if they were very harsh. He unified all the city states into one large kingdom. The Egyptian civilization was located on a narrow strip along the Nile River. The geography of this land was desert on both sides providing them with natural barriers and protection form invaders. The desert also caused isolation for this civilization. They suffered from flooding but it was predictable. The form of government they had was theocracy where the ruler believed that they were divine and god-like.
The whole nation of Lower and Upper Egypt was united as whole nation though. Egypt was ruled by a pharaoh otherwise known as a form of king. They also believed that the pharaohs were a type of god. So the pharaohs would play a role in political and religious roles. Egyptian people also believed that even after a ruler died they still ruled in the afterlife. The slaves of the society built giant temples or tombs for the rulers to be placed into along with many belongs and other earthly things to be passed on to the afterlife with them.
These structures are what we know today as pyramids. The type of beliefs they had been polytheistic because they believed all rulers were gods. Societies social class was divided…You had the royal family…. the upper class made up of landowners, priests, army commanders and government officials. Then you had the middle class made up of artisans and merchants. Then there was the lower class made up of peasants and unskilled workers. Women in this society had the rights as the men and could seek for divorce. Their righting system was called hieroglyphics.
They invented papyrus a form of paper to write on. This civilization was the first to use the stone column. They made great advances in medicine and used a number system with a base of 10 and had decimals. The Indus River Valley Civilization began at about 2500 B. C also referred to as the Harappan Civilization settle along the Indus River. This area was larger than Mesopotamia. They were farmers with very limited government control. There wasn’t much of a social class because they all lived in similar housing systems.
They were peaceful people from what historians can tell because not very many weapons were found. Their religion is linked to Hinduism making them polytheistic. They suffered from yearly monsoons in the summer and they were predictable and this is when the river would flood. Ancient China developed along the Huang He/ Yellow River. The geography was ocean, desert, and high mountains. This caused China to develop in isolation leading them to think they were the venter of the world. They developed calligraphy writing and the art of paper making.
In their society there was a sharp division between kings, nobles and peasants. There was also an emphasis on family and respect of parents/elders. The religion was worship to gods and to their ancestors. Oracle bones used to consult their ancestors. The writing system was unlike anything instead of a letter representing a sound it represented an idea making easier for people who spoke other languages to understand. A new idea of royalty that claimed rulers got their authority from heaven. This was known as the Mandate from Heaven.
From here on out the Chinese would believe in divine rule. These meant disasters could be blamed on the rulers and they would frequently be replaced by the gods being unpleased. This led to a pattern of rise and fall of dynasties in China known as the dynastic cycle. This is the four great river valley civilizations. All of these civilizations made great contributions to future generations. They all had advances in technology and their own ideas on how a government system should be run. Each society had similar traits but they were all very different.
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Early River Valley Civilizations
The four early river valley civilizations were the Sumerian/Mesopotamia, Egyptian, Harappan and Ancient China. All of these civilizations were located on fertile river beds to make planting crops much easier. They all made technological advances in their time span and set the ground for future generations. The Sumerian civilization also known as Mesopotamia/The Fertile Crescent is located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers…. this is how it gets its name the Fertile Crescent. The climate for this civilization is dry except in the area between the rivers.
The river flood at least once a year leaving a thick layer of mud called silt behind. There were draw backs to living hear though flooding was often unpredictable and very dry through the summer months. There were also no natural barriers so if you were a village out in the open you were likely to be attacked. Natural resources were also limited.
The solutions to some of these problems were; they built irrigation ditches, put up walls and traded with people around them for resources that they lacked. Mesopotamia’s government structure was a city state.
Each city in Mesopotamia had its own government, rulers, and warriors. Each city had its own god also in the center of each city-state was a ziggurat a place where that city-state’s god could be worshipped. Even though the cities all shared common culture they all functioned independently. The different rules often kept the ruling in the family for many generations this also known as a dynasty. The religion aspect of this civilization was polytheistic or believed in many gods. There were 3 branches to the social class priests and royalty were on top followed by wealthy merchants and ordinary workers.
Women in this civilization were not allowed to attend school making it so they could not read or write unless you were wealthy. Slaves were used and they were not free. This civilization invented one of the first forms of writing also known as Cuneiform. They also invented the wheel, the sail and the plow. They were also the first to use bronze. At about 2,000 BCE Mesopotamia became the Babylonian Empire. The capital of this empire was Babylon built on the Euphrates River. The reign of power was held by Hammurabi. He is most well-known for his laws “An eye for an eye, an ear for an ear. These laws were strictly followed though even if they were very harsh. He unified all the city states into one large kingdom. The Egyptian civilization was located on a narrow strip along the Nile River. The geography of this land was desert on both sides providing them with natural barriers and protection form invaders. The desert also caused isolation for this civilization. They suffered from flooding but it was predictable. The form of government they had was theocracy where the ruler believed that they were divine and god-like.
The whole nation of Lower and Upper Egypt was united as whole nation though. Egypt was ruled by a pharaoh otherwise known as a form of king. They also believed that the pharaohs were a type of god. So the pharaohs would play a role in political and religious roles. Egyptian people also believed that even after a ruler died they still ruled in the afterlife. The slaves of the society built giant temples or tombs for the rulers to be placed into along with many belongs and other earthly things to be passed on to the afterlife with them.
These structures are what we know today as pyramids. The type of beliefs they had been polytheistic because they believed all rulers were gods. Societies social class was divided…You had the royal family…. the upper class made up of landowners, priests, army commanders and government officials. Then you had the middle class made up of artisans and merchants. Then there was the lower class made up of peasants and unskilled workers. Women in this society had the rights as the men and could seek for divorce. Their righting system was called hieroglyphics.
They invented papyrus a form of paper to write on. This civilization was the first to use the stone column. They made great advances in medicine and used a number system with a base of 10 and had decimals. The Indus River Valley Civilization began at about 2500 B. C also referred to as the Harappan Civilization settle along the Indus River. This area was larger than Mesopotamia. They were farmers with very limited government control. There wasn’t much of a social class because they all lived in similar housing systems.
They were peaceful people from what historians can tell because not very many weapons were found. Their religion is linked to Hinduism making them polytheistic. They suffered from yearly monsoons in the summer and they were predictable and this is when the river would flood. Ancient China developed along the Huang He/ Yellow River. The geography was ocean, desert, and high mountains. This caused China to develop in isolation leading them to think they were the venter of the world. They developed calligraphy writing and the art of paper making.
In their society there was a sharp division between kings, nobles and peasants. There was also an emphasis on family and respect of parents/elders. The religion was worship to gods and to their ancestors. Oracle bones used to consult their ancestors. The writing system was unlike anything instead of a letter representing a sound it represented an idea making easier for people who spoke other languages to understand. A new idea of royalty that claimed rulers got their authority from heaven. This was known as the Mandate from Heaven.
From here on out the Chinese would believe in divine rule. These meant disasters could be blamed on the rulers and they would frequently be replaced by the gods being unpleased. This led to a pattern of rise and fall of dynasties in China known as the dynastic cycle. This is the four great river valley civilizations. All of these civilizations made great contributions to future generations. They all had advances in technology and their own ideas on how a government system should be run. Each society had similar traits but they were all very different.
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Hernán Cortés Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Hernán Cortés was a Spaniard born around the year 1485 in Medellin, Spain. Although he was of high born and noble status, the family was poor. So, he went out into the world to help make his fortunes. Also, he was a conquistador that took the liberty of overthrowing the Aztec empire in the name of Spain. Therefore, he won the Mexican crown for the Spanish King in the 16th century. As a young man of just 19 years of age, Hernán Cortés took to the seas to be an explorer.
The first time saw him in Hispaniola and then later in Cuba. The activities of Hernán Cortés were somewhat illegal as he had chosen to go against the then sitting governor. However, he wrote to the king directly to ensure that the crown would recognize his efforts. Soon, after that, he won against the Aztec Empire. After that, he took the name of Marques del Valle de Oaxaca. After some time, say around six years, he went back to Spain where he died. Natural causes caused his death.
Hernán Cortés was born in the year 1485 around a town by the name Medellin, Spain. He was born to one Martín Cortés de Monroy and Maria Cortés. Just when he was only 14 years of age, Hernán Cortés was sent to study. He was to learn Latin from his uncle in Salamanca. Later he would get the opportunity to go to the University of Salamanca. Some two years then of study, Hernán Cortés went back home Medellin.
The parents were not happy about his move. They were hoping to see their son learn to be a lawyer. The little time that he spent learning law would prove useful in the later years when he conquered the Aztec Empire. At the time when he was 16 years of age, most of the work of the famous Christopher Columbus was getting too many ears. So, in turn, Hernán Cortés got intrigued by them.
Voyage to the New World
Hernán Cortés got the opportunity to sail to the New World with one of the family’s associates. However, at the time, Hernán Cortés got a grievous injury and was not able to voyage. Although after sometime later, he was able to travel. So, in the year 1504, he left for Hispaniola and then became one of the most famous conquistadors of all time.
After getting to Saint Domingo, Hernán Cortés got registration as a citizen. He was only 18 years of age at the time. So, he was given a piece of land to build and farm. Later, the governor gave him work as one of the notaries in town. More then, Hernán Cortés would take part in the conquering of Cub and Hispaniola. After that, Hernán Cortés got to receive a large piece of land and estate.
Conquering the Aztec Empire
After some time in the New World, Hernán Cortés was in command of his destiny. Moreover, he had rebelled against the sitting governor. So, he gathered up his troops and went for the biggest score of his lifetime. The governor upon realizing that Hernán Cortés was moving against the Aztec Empire against his wishes he canceled the expedition. However, Hernán Cortés did not listen to the jealousy of the governor. So he set sail and went for the Aztec Empire in the year 1519.
At the time, Hernán Cortés was in collusion with so many of the locals. Therefore, he had a large force that he could use to conquer the Aztec Empire. At one point the governor tried to stop him, but together with his army, he fought the governor off. Also, on the way, he encountered other hostile Native that he crashed before getting to the Aztec Empire. Upon reaching the Empire, he took King Montezuma II hostage. This move gave the soldiers an opportunity to sack the city dry.
In the process, of fighting the Aztecs, the Spanish organized and marched against Hernán Cortés. So, he left and met them halfway to deal with them. After beating them, he went back to the empire. However, the empire was hostile, and the locals drove them off. Later, Hernán Cortés reorganized his men and went to the realm a third time to crash them in 1521. After such victories, the King of Spain Charles appointed him the new governor of New Spain.
The promotion that came after the win against the Aztec went with a lot of challenges. Most of the people in New Spain would challenge his authority and position. Around the same period, Hernán Cortés went to Honduras to quell an uprising against his rule. While he was there, another person had taken over Mexico. So, he went straight to Spain from the battlefields. His move was to get the King to reappoint him, but his plea failed. After some time, Hernán Cortés died while still in Spain in the year 1547.
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Hernán Cortés Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Hernán Cortés was a Spaniard born around the year 1485 in Medellin, Spain. Although he was of high born and noble status, the family was poor. So, he went out into the world to help make his fortunes. Also, he was a conquistador that took the liberty of overthrowing the Aztec empire in the name of Spain. Therefore, he won the Mexican crown for the Spanish King in the 16th century. As a young man of just 19 years of age, Hernán Cortés took to the seas to be an explorer.
The first time saw him in Hispaniola and then later in Cuba. The activities of Hernán Cortés were somewhat illegal as he had chosen to go against the then sitting governor. However, he wrote to the king directly to ensure that the crown would recognize his efforts. Soon, after that, he won against the Aztec Empire. After that, he took the name of Marques del Valle de Oaxaca. After some time, say around six years, he went back to Spain where he died. Natural causes caused his death.
Hernán Cortés was born in the year 1485 around a town by the name Medellin, Spain. He was born to one Martín Cortés de Monroy and Maria Cortés. Just when he was only 14 years of age, Hernán Cortés was sent to study. He was to learn Latin from his uncle in Salamanca. Later he would get the opportunity to go to the University of Salamanca. Some two years then of study, Hernán Cortés went back home Medellin.
The parents were not happy about his move. They were hoping to see their son learn to be a lawyer. The little time that he spent learning law would prove useful in the later years when he conquered the Aztec Empire. At the time when he was 16 years of age, most of the work of the famous Christopher Columbus was getting too many ears. So, in turn, Hernán Cortés got intrigued by them.
Voyage to the New World
Hernán Cortés got the opportunity to sail to the New World with one of the family’s associates. However, at the time, Hernán Cortés got a grievous injury and was not able to voyage. Although after sometime later, he was able to travel. So, in the year 1504, he left for Hispaniola and then became one of the most famous conquistadors of all time.
After getting to Saint Domingo, Hernán Cortés got registration as a citizen. He was only 18 years of age at the time. So, he was given a piece of land to build and farm. Later, the governor gave him work as one of the notaries in town. More then, Hernán Cortés would take part in the conquering of Cub and Hispaniola. After that, Hernán Cortés got to receive a large piece of land and estate.
Conquering the Aztec Empire
After some time in the New World, Hernán Cortés was in command of his destiny. Moreover, he had rebelled against the sitting governor. So, he gathered up his troops and went for the biggest score of his lifetime. The governor upon realizing that Hernán Cortés was moving against the Aztec Empire against his wishes he canceled the expedition. However, Hernán Cortés did not listen to the jealousy of the governor. So he set sail and went for the Aztec Empire in the year 1519.
At the time, Hernán Cortés was in collusion with so many of the locals. Therefore, he had a large force that he could use to conquer the Aztec Empire. At one point the governor tried to stop him, but together with his army, he fought the governor off. Also, on the way, he encountered other hostile Native that he crashed before getting to the Aztec Empire. Upon reaching the Empire, he took King Montezuma II hostage. This move gave the soldiers an opportunity to sack the city dry.
In the process, of fighting the Aztecs, the Spanish organized and marched against Hernán Cortés. So, he left and met them halfway to deal with them. After beating them, he went back to the empire. However, the empire was hostile, and the locals drove them off. Later, Hernán Cortés reorganized his men and went to the realm a third time to crash them in 1521. After such victories, the King of Spain Charles appointed him the new governor of New Spain.
The promotion that came after the win against the Aztec went with a lot of challenges. Most of the people in New Spain would challenge his authority and position. Around the same period, Hernán Cortés went to Honduras to quell an uprising against his rule. While he was there, another person had taken over Mexico. So, he went straight to Spain from the battlefields. His move was to get the King to reappoint him, but his plea failed. After some time, Hernán Cortés died while still in Spain in the year 1547.
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Alphonso Taft served as attorney general of the United States from 1876 to 1877, under President ulysses s. grant.
Taft was born November 5, 1810, in Townsend, Vermont, to pioneers Peter Rawson Taft and Sylvia Howard Taft. He was well aware of his family's long history and tradition of public service in the American colonies. His father was a descendant of Edward Rawson, a 1636 settler who had served as secretary of the Massachusetts Province. Other Taft family members held positions of responsibility and influence in communities all along the eastern seaboard.
Although Taft's parents were of modest financial means, they had a strong commitment to education, and Taft was well schooled. Taft left Vermont to attend Yale University in 1829, where he received a bachelor of arts degree in 1833 and his law degree in 1836.
"The government is neutral, and, while protecting all, it prefers none and disparages none."
Like many young men of his day, Taft saw his future in the West. In 1839 Taft moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, and opened his law practice. On August 29, 1841, he married Fanny Phelps, the daughter of family friends Charles Phelps and Eliza Houghton Phelps. Fanny died in 1852.
Taft remarried in 1853, to Louise Maria Torret. They had three sons and one daughter, including william howard taft, who became the twenty-seventh president of the United States and the tenth chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
Taft played an important role in organizing his influential friends to support the national Republican effort, and he is personally credited with the birth of the republican party in Cincinnati. He was chosen to represent Hamilton County at the first Republican National Convention, in 1856. He later sought to represent Ohio's first district in the thirty-fifth Congress. He ran as a Republican candidate, but was defeated. He remained active in Republican party politics for most of his life.
In 1865 Taft was appointed to fill the remaining term of a Cincinnati superior court judge. Later that year, he was elected in his own right, and he served as a judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati from 1865 to 1872.
In 1872 Taft left the bench to practice law with his grown sons. He took an active role in the establishment and organization of the Cincinnati Bar Association, and he was elected the first president of the new organization in March 1872. Taft's political, judicial, and legal activities during the late 1860s and early 1870s elevated him to national attention, so few were surprised when President Grant appointed him secretary of war in March 1876. (It was a position his son William Howard Taft would also hold thirty years later, under President theodore roosevelt.) Only two months later, Grant named Taft to be attorney general.
Taft served as attorney general from May 1876 to January 1877. In November 1876, the government's policy of suspending pay to sailors who were jailed or removed from duty was challenged. Taft rendered an opinion finding "nothing in the law of the naval service which justifies the view that confinement or suspension from duty under sentence of court-martial is attended by forfeiture or loss of pay" (15 Op. Att'y Gen. 175, 176).
Following his term as attorney general, Taft made several unsuccessful bids for elected office. He was defeated in his run for a U.S. Senate seat in 1878. And he was defeated in two attempts at the Ohio governor's seat, in 1877 and 1879.
In April 1882, he was named U.S. ambassador to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1884 Taft was offered the ambassadorship to Russia. He accepted, and served until August 1885.
At the close of his foreign service, Taft settled in California. In retirement, he devoted his time to a number of educational institutions, including Yale University, where he was a fellow of the college, and the University of Cincinnati, where he was a charter trustee. After his death on May 21, 1891, in San Diego, the University of Cincinnati's Alphonso Taft School of Law was named in his honor.
Brown, Gloria. 1992. "The Tafts: The Cleveland Branch of Ohio's Famous Political Family." Cleveland Plain Dealer (April 12).
Pollak, Louis H. 1989. "'Original Intention' and the Crucible of Litigation." University of Cincinnati Law Review 57.
Rhodes, Irwin S. 1972. "The Founding of the Cincinnati Bar Association." Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 30.
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Alphonso Taft served as attorney general of the United States from 1876 to 1877, under President ulysses s. grant.
Taft was born November 5, 1810, in Townsend, Vermont, to pioneers Peter Rawson Taft and Sylvia Howard Taft. He was well aware of his family's long history and tradition of public service in the American colonies. His father was a descendant of Edward Rawson, a 1636 settler who had served as secretary of the Massachusetts Province. Other Taft family members held positions of responsibility and influence in communities all along the eastern seaboard.
Although Taft's parents were of modest financial means, they had a strong commitment to education, and Taft was well schooled. Taft left Vermont to attend Yale University in 1829, where he received a bachelor of arts degree in 1833 and his law degree in 1836.
"The government is neutral, and, while protecting all, it prefers none and disparages none."
Like many young men of his day, Taft saw his future in the West. In 1839 Taft moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, and opened his law practice. On August 29, 1841, he married Fanny Phelps, the daughter of family friends Charles Phelps and Eliza Houghton Phelps. Fanny died in 1852.
Taft remarried in 1853, to Louise Maria Torret. They had three sons and one daughter, including william howard taft, who became the twenty-seventh president of the United States and the tenth chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
Taft played an important role in organizing his influential friends to support the national Republican effort, and he is personally credited with the birth of the republican party in Cincinnati. He was chosen to represent Hamilton County at the first Republican National Convention, in 1856. He later sought to represent Ohio's first district in the thirty-fifth Congress. He ran as a Republican candidate, but was defeated. He remained active in Republican party politics for most of his life.
In 1865 Taft was appointed to fill the remaining term of a Cincinnati superior court judge. Later that year, he was elected in his own right, and he served as a judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati from 1865 to 1872.
In 1872 Taft left the bench to practice law with his grown sons. He took an active role in the establishment and organization of the Cincinnati Bar Association, and he was elected the first president of the new organization in March 1872. Taft's political, judicial, and legal activities during the late 1860s and early 1870s elevated him to national attention, so few were surprised when President Grant appointed him secretary of war in March 1876. (It was a position his son William Howard Taft would also hold thirty years later, under President theodore roosevelt.) Only two months later, Grant named Taft to be attorney general.
Taft served as attorney general from May 1876 to January 1877. In November 1876, the government's policy of suspending pay to sailors who were jailed or removed from duty was challenged. Taft rendered an opinion finding "nothing in the law of the naval service which justifies the view that confinement or suspension from duty under sentence of court-martial is attended by forfeiture or loss of pay" (15 Op. Att'y Gen. 175, 176).
Following his term as attorney general, Taft made several unsuccessful bids for elected office. He was defeated in his run for a U.S. Senate seat in 1878. And he was defeated in two attempts at the Ohio governor's seat, in 1877 and 1879.
In April 1882, he was named U.S. ambassador to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1884 Taft was offered the ambassadorship to Russia. He accepted, and served until August 1885.
At the close of his foreign service, Taft settled in California. In retirement, he devoted his time to a number of educational institutions, including Yale University, where he was a fellow of the college, and the University of Cincinnati, where he was a charter trustee. After his death on May 21, 1891, in San Diego, the University of Cincinnati's Alphonso Taft School of Law was named in his honor.
Brown, Gloria. 1992. "The Tafts: The Cleveland Branch of Ohio's Famous Political Family." Cleveland Plain Dealer (April 12).
Pollak, Louis H. 1989. "'Original Intention' and the Crucible of Litigation." University of Cincinnati Law Review 57.
Rhodes, Irwin S. 1972. "The Founding of the Cincinnati Bar Association." Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 30.
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ENGLISH
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This Court, established in 1540 by Henry VIII, had its roots in medieval times when tenants held land from their lords in return for knight (i.e. military) service.
When the tenant died, a male heir of full age (21) could inherit the land after paying his lord a fee for it. The term for this was “to sue out his livery.”
If the heir were a minor, the lord took over the land and any rents and revenue from it. The lord could also bring up the heir in his own household until he was of full age.
Where the young heir was female the lord had the right to arrange her marriage. That made sense: the lord would have wanted her husband to be someone he could rely on for loyal service. This practice spread to male wards’ marriages, possibly as a way of building strategic alliances among powerful families.
In Tudor times the system evolved into a means of raising revenue for the Crown. Young heirs became royal wards under the management of the Court of Wards and Liveries. The Court then sold their wardships on behalf of the Crown.
The Court’s purpose was primarily financial, but it did provide a measure of legal protection for young heirs.
However, the system was open to abuse.
Mothers or other close relatives who would have a genuine interest in the welfare of a young heir were not necessarily favoured as guardians.
Wardships tended to go to the highest bidder, or were sometimes gifted in return for service to the Crown.
Guardians were in a position to squeeze the maximum amount of personal profit from their wards’ estates, and to marry their wards to members of their own family.
Critics of the system claimed that wards’ education was often neglected, and that youngsters were pushed into marriages that were advantageous only to their guardians.
A ward who refused a marriage was obliged to pay their guardian a heavy fine when he or she came of age.
How were such fines calculated?
Joel Hurstfield quotes the Statute of Merton (1236): If an heir, of what age soever he be, will not marry at the request of his lord he shall not be compelled thereunto; but when he cometh to full age he shall give to his lord, and pay him as much as any would have given for the marriage.
H.E. Bell gives an alternative method of calculation, dating from Edward I’s reign (1272-1307): a male heir’s fine could be as high as two years of his land’s annual value and a female’s as high as three, depending on how the heir’s land was held – in possession or in reversion.
Understandably, few young heirs refused their marriages. In addition to the financial penalty, it would have been difficult for teenagers – particularly girls – to find people prepared to support them.
The Court became increasingly unpopular among families whose heirs were at risk of becoming royal wards (i.e. in the case of a father’s death). However, that did not stop such families from doing their best to acquire wardships for themselves.
The Court was finally abolished in 1666.
The Earl of Southampton’s Wardship.
The young Earl was almost eight when his father died in 1581. The revenues from the old Earl’s many and various properties were valued for the Court of Wards and Liveries as being worth just over £1097 per annum.
The widowed Countess was entitled to a third of these revenues, worth almost £363 per annum, for the rest of her life. Then they would revert to her son. (An example of property held in reversion.)
Another set of properties, valued at nearly £371 per annum, became the Queen’s until the young Earl was of age. Their administration and revenue would go to whomever purchased his wardship. The final “third”, valued at over £363 per annum, was to be used for paying legacies left by the old Earl and/or administered by his executors on behalf of his son.
The young Earl’s “wardship and marriage” was sold to Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham, for £1000. That’s the same Lord Howard who had overall command of the navy in 1588 when England was threatened by the first Spanish Armada.
There’s no record of how William Cecil, Lord Burghley became the young Earl’s guardian, but he did. Was it a private arrangement with Lord Howard? Or the result of a word with the Queen? And how far did the arrangement extend from oversight, by Lord and Lady Burghley, of the young Earl’s upbringing and education to the very real financial benefits associated with his wardship and marriage?
Lord Burghley certainly wanted the young Earl to marry his granddaughter, Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of the Earl of Oxford. The young Earl refused, despite pressure from his mother and her father, but there’s no formal record of his having to pay Lord Burghley a fine.
The person who said he did is Father Henry Garnet (1555-1606), who was under cover in England as leader of the Jesuit mission: The young Erle of Southampton, refusing the Lady Veere, payeth 5000 [pounds] of present payment.
This payment is disputed by Hurstfield, who regards Garnet as an unreliable informant.
G.P.V Akrigg defends Garnet, referring to a comment made by Garnet’s biographer about the “sense of accuracy” in his letters.
There’s no doubt that wards who refused marriages did have to pay substantial fines to their guardians.
However, it’s also possible that in this case Father Garnet was accurately reporting a false rumour he’d heard.
The young Earl’s income at age 21, as estimated by Akrigg, was likely to have been close to £3000 a year. A fine calculated at up to two years of his lands’ annual value would therefore make £5000 a credible amount, but whether or not the Earl paid any money to Lord Burghley is unknown.
What we do know is that in his early twenties he was so heavily in debt that he was reduced to selling land. Oddly, Akrigg, who’s convinced that the Earl did pay Burghley £5000, attributes his financial difficulties to an extravagant lifestyle.
However, these difficulties could well have been the result of having to pay the fine.
Joel Hurstfield The Queen’s Wards: Wardship and Marriage under Elizabeth I (Longmans, 1958) p142.
H.E. Bell An Introduction to the History and Records of the Court of Wards & Liveries (Cambridge University Press, 1953) p126.
G.P.V. Akrigg Shakespeare & the Earl of Southampton (Harvard University Press 1968) pp19-21.
Akrigg pp21-22.
Hurstfield p251.
Akrigg pp38-39.
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This Court, established in 1540 by Henry VIII, had its roots in medieval times when tenants held land from their lords in return for knight (i.e. military) service.
When the tenant died, a male heir of full age (21) could inherit the land after paying his lord a fee for it. The term for this was “to sue out his livery.”
If the heir were a minor, the lord took over the land and any rents and revenue from it. The lord could also bring up the heir in his own household until he was of full age.
Where the young heir was female the lord had the right to arrange her marriage. That made sense: the lord would have wanted her husband to be someone he could rely on for loyal service. This practice spread to male wards’ marriages, possibly as a way of building strategic alliances among powerful families.
In Tudor times the system evolved into a means of raising revenue for the Crown. Young heirs became royal wards under the management of the Court of Wards and Liveries. The Court then sold their wardships on behalf of the Crown.
The Court’s purpose was primarily financial, but it did provide a measure of legal protection for young heirs.
However, the system was open to abuse.
Mothers or other close relatives who would have a genuine interest in the welfare of a young heir were not necessarily favoured as guardians.
Wardships tended to go to the highest bidder, or were sometimes gifted in return for service to the Crown.
Guardians were in a position to squeeze the maximum amount of personal profit from their wards’ estates, and to marry their wards to members of their own family.
Critics of the system claimed that wards’ education was often neglected, and that youngsters were pushed into marriages that were advantageous only to their guardians.
A ward who refused a marriage was obliged to pay their guardian a heavy fine when he or she came of age.
How were such fines calculated?
Joel Hurstfield quotes the Statute of Merton (1236): If an heir, of what age soever he be, will not marry at the request of his lord he shall not be compelled thereunto; but when he cometh to full age he shall give to his lord, and pay him as much as any would have given for the marriage.
H.E. Bell gives an alternative method of calculation, dating from Edward I’s reign (1272-1307): a male heir’s fine could be as high as two years of his land’s annual value and a female’s as high as three, depending on how the heir’s land was held – in possession or in reversion.
Understandably, few young heirs refused their marriages. In addition to the financial penalty, it would have been difficult for teenagers – particularly girls – to find people prepared to support them.
The Court became increasingly unpopular among families whose heirs were at risk of becoming royal wards (i.e. in the case of a father’s death). However, that did not stop such families from doing their best to acquire wardships for themselves.
The Court was finally abolished in 1666.
The Earl of Southampton’s Wardship.
The young Earl was almost eight when his father died in 1581. The revenues from the old Earl’s many and various properties were valued for the Court of Wards and Liveries as being worth just over £1097 per annum.
The widowed Countess was entitled to a third of these revenues, worth almost £363 per annum, for the rest of her life. Then they would revert to her son. (An example of property held in reversion.)
Another set of properties, valued at nearly £371 per annum, became the Queen’s until the young Earl was of age. Their administration and revenue would go to whomever purchased his wardship. The final “third”, valued at over £363 per annum, was to be used for paying legacies left by the old Earl and/or administered by his executors on behalf of his son.
The young Earl’s “wardship and marriage” was sold to Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham, for £1000. That’s the same Lord Howard who had overall command of the navy in 1588 when England was threatened by the first Spanish Armada.
There’s no record of how William Cecil, Lord Burghley became the young Earl’s guardian, but he did. Was it a private arrangement with Lord Howard? Or the result of a word with the Queen? And how far did the arrangement extend from oversight, by Lord and Lady Burghley, of the young Earl’s upbringing and education to the very real financial benefits associated with his wardship and marriage?
Lord Burghley certainly wanted the young Earl to marry his granddaughter, Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of the Earl of Oxford. The young Earl refused, despite pressure from his mother and her father, but there’s no formal record of his having to pay Lord Burghley a fine.
The person who said he did is Father Henry Garnet (1555-1606), who was under cover in England as leader of the Jesuit mission: The young Erle of Southampton, refusing the Lady Veere, payeth 5000 [pounds] of present payment.
This payment is disputed by Hurstfield, who regards Garnet as an unreliable informant.
G.P.V Akrigg defends Garnet, referring to a comment made by Garnet’s biographer about the “sense of accuracy” in his letters.
There’s no doubt that wards who refused marriages did have to pay substantial fines to their guardians.
However, it’s also possible that in this case Father Garnet was accurately reporting a false rumour he’d heard.
The young Earl’s income at age 21, as estimated by Akrigg, was likely to have been close to £3000 a year. A fine calculated at up to two years of his lands’ annual value would therefore make £5000 a credible amount, but whether or not the Earl paid any money to Lord Burghley is unknown.
What we do know is that in his early twenties he was so heavily in debt that he was reduced to selling land. Oddly, Akrigg, who’s convinced that the Earl did pay Burghley £5000, attributes his financial difficulties to an extravagant lifestyle.
However, these difficulties could well have been the result of having to pay the fine.
Joel Hurstfield The Queen’s Wards: Wardship and Marriage under Elizabeth I (Longmans, 1958) p142.
H.E. Bell An Introduction to the History and Records of the Court of Wards & Liveries (Cambridge University Press, 1953) p126.
G.P.V. Akrigg Shakespeare & the Earl of Southampton (Harvard University Press 1968) pp19-21.
Akrigg pp21-22.
Hurstfield p251.
Akrigg pp38-39.
| 1,465
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The Church structure, liturgical rites, specifics of piety, Christian customs and everyday traditions of Wales . . . made this far western corner of the Christian world very close to the Christian East
In the seventh century A.D., the population of Britain consisted mainly of two ethnic groups relatively equal in number, collectively known as the Celts and the Anglo-Saxons respectively. The Celts can be divided into three major sub-groups, namely the Welsh (the descendants of the Britons—the native inhabitants of Britain who were driven west by the invading Angles and Saxons) in Wales; the Picts (an indigenous tribal confederation of peoples in Scotland); and the Fenians, or Scots (a Gaelic people that migrated from Ireland to Scotland around the late fifth century)—this is how they were commonly called in Britain (“Scotti”, meaning “wanderers”, referred to the Irish in general). The name “Scotland” derives from the Latin “Scotia”—“the land of the Scots”. This is because in the middle ages, Scotland as a country was developed by the Scots rather than the native Picts.
In the fifth century the Fenians changed their name and began to be called Gaels; they founded the kingdom of Dalriada (also spelled Dal Riata) north of the Antonine Wall, the territory of which extended to northeastern Ireland(Ulster) and groups of small islands between Britain and Ireland. By the beginning of the seventh century Dalriada had become an overwhelmingly Christian state, and the Irish Celtic rites were established in it. The liturgical traditions and practices of the Celtic Church were slightly different from those of the Roman Church. Their main theological dispute of that time was the controversy over the correct date for Pascha (the “Roman party” in Britain was represented by disciples of St. Augustine of Canterbury, the Roman enlightener of the Anglo-Saxons). The greatest and more significant ecclesiological and canonical difference was the Church administration. In Celtic Christianity all authority belonged to abbots of monasteries, while bishops had no administrative power—they lived at the monasteries, obeyed their abbots, and performed their sacramental functions, including ordinations.
The founders of monasteries in Ireland and Dalriada were held in great honor, and thus the abbots were often referred to as “comarbae” (meaning “heirs”, “successors” in Old Irish). Every abbot of Iona in Scotland was called “comarba Colum Cille” (“successor of Columba”), and every abbot of Armagh was called “comarba Patraic” (“successor of Patrick”). In the second half of the seventh century, the most influential abbot in Dalriada, Ireland and even Northumbria in northern England was St. Adomnan, the ninth successor of St. Columba and the author of the most famous version of his (Columba’s) Life. In 688, under the influence of Northumbrian monks, St. Adomnan introduced the Roman paschalia in the churches of Dalriada, though the brethren of Iona refused to adopt it.
The largest ethnic group in Caledonia (the Roman name for Scotland) were the Picts. They inhabited most of its territory, and by the beginning of the seventh century the majority of them had become Christians. They converted to Christianity mainly thanks to the apostolic labors of St. Columba, who made numerous missionary journeys to their land in the second half of the sixth century. At the turn of the sixth century, Pictland already had a number of monasteries founded by St. Columba and his disciples, although most of the settlements where they were situated cannot be identified today. However, we have no information about the bishops who were sent to serve in Pictland, so we presume that the Church throughout the kingdom was administrated from by the abbots of Iona, where bishops actually lived.
The liturgical traditions of the Church of Pictland were identical to those of the Churches in Ireland and Dalriada. But in 663/664, the famous Synod of Whitby was summoned in Northumbria, gathering the proponents of both the Celtic and the Roman customs. At the Synod, St. Colman of Lindisfarne supported the “Celtic party”, while St. Wilfrid of York and Hexham supported the “Roman party” with its paschalia. After a dispute between Sts. Colman and Wilfrid, the Roman party ultimately won the day. After St. Wilfrid’s consecration as bishop of Eboracum (York), the churches of South Pictland, at that time occupied by Northumbrians, were under his jurisdiction for several years. At that time they used the Roman paschalia to celebrate the Resurrection of Christ.
In 681, the new Diocese of Abercorn was established in South Pictland, close to the south coast of the Firth of Forth, to provide spiritual guidance to the local population. St. Trumwine was consecrated the first bishop of Abercorn. He made efforts to introduce the Roman paschalia and other practices in all the parishes of his bishopric, but after Northumbria’s defeat in the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685, St. Trumwine “withdrew with his people who were in the monastery of Abercurnig [Abercorn], seated in the country of the English, but close by the arm of the sea which parts the lands of the English and the Scots. Having recommended his followers, wheresoever he could, to his friends in the monasteries, he chose his own place of residence in the monastery, which we have so often mentioned, of men and women servants of God, at Streaneshalch [Whitby].”1 He reposed there many years later, unable to give spiritual guidance to the Church of Pictland, which, therefore, reverted to its Celtic practices and upheld them for a quarter of a century after him.
The most numerous Celtic people in seventh century Britain were the Britons, or Cymry, who were brutally massacred in great numbers by the invading Angles and Saxons and pushed from their native lands. Resisting the aggression, the Celtic tribes remained safe in the west from Anglo-Saxon domination and formed small British kingdoms in Cornwall (Dumnonia), Wales (originally called Cymru, or Cambria) and Strathclyde (or Cumbria), which stretched to the southwest of Scotland. Though a distinct entity, Wales (the largest of these) was not a monolithic state. It was divided into several small independent kingdoms which acted in alliance with each other. Among them were Gwynedd (NW Wales), Dyfed (SW Wales), and Powys (E Wales).
The seventh century, like the previous sixth century, was marked by the Celtic Britons’ stout resistance to the Anglo-Saxons’ steady onslaught. They experienced both victories and defeats in this struggle. Yet one of the battles proved fatal for Cambria. It was the Battle of Legacastir [the Roman name of present-day Chester] which took place in about 616. In it the joint army of Powys and several smaller allied kingdoms fought against the Northumbrians. However, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dates this battle to 604. The Chronicle’s entry for 607 reads: “Ethelfrith led his army to Legacastir; where he slew an innumerable host of the Welsh; and so was fulfilled the prophecy of St. Augustine, wherein he saith ‘If the Welsh will not have peace with us, they shall perish at the hands of the Saxons.’”2
St. Bede of Jarrow, giving his account of the Battle of Legacastir, refers to the British soldiers and priests who came with them as “heretics” only because of their way of calculating the date of Pascha and other minor liturgical differences: “Their priests … came together to offer up their prayers to God for the soldiers, standing apart in a place of more safety. Most of them were of the monastery of Bangor, in which, it is reported, there was so great a number of monks, that the monastery being divided into seven parts, with a ruler over each, none of those parts contained less than three hundred men, who all lived by the labor of their hands. Many of these, having observed a fast of three days, resorted among others to pray at the aforesaid battle, having one Brocmail appointed for their protector, to defend them whilst they were intent upon their prayers, against the swords of the barbarians. King Ethelfrith being informed of the occasion of their coming, said, ‘If then they cry to their God against us, in truth, though they do not bear arms, yet they fight against us, because they oppose us by their prayers.’”3
Thus, in modern legal language, the King of Northumbria refused to recognize these priests as noncombatants. We read further: “He, therefore, commanded them to be attacked first, and then destroyed the rest of the impious army, not without considerable loss of his own.”4
Here St. Bede’s Anglo-Saxon patriotism and religious intolerance go over the top… For him the “impious army” was not the horde of the pagan Angles but the army of the Christian Britons, though the only major difference between the Celtic and the Roman traditions (St. Bede belonged to the latter) was in the way the two Churches calculated the date of Pascha and tonsured monks. “About twelve hundred of those that came to pray are said to have been killed, and only fifty to have escaped by flight. Brocmail turning his back with his men, at the first approach of the enemy, left those whom he ought to have defended, unarmed and exposed to the swords of the enemies.”5 And St. Bede concludes that account, gloating over their defeat: “Those perfidious men… had despised the offer of eternal salvation.”6 Interestingly, elsewhere in his wonderful book St. Bede displays a much more tolerant attitude towards other Celts, namely the Scots (the Irish) and the Picts. Perhaps he felt a personal antipathy to the Britons about which we know nothing. By the way, the Angles and Saxons contemptuously called the Britons “the Welsh”, meaning simply “foreigners” [though, in effect, they themselves were foreigners! Hence “Wales” means “the land of the foreigners”, and “Cornwall”, originally “Corn-Wales”, means “the horn”, or “promontory, inhabited by the foreigners.”—Trans.]. The victory in the Battle of Legacastir gave Northumbria easy access to the Irish Sea and so the Celtic world of Britain was then largely disintegrated: Cambria (Wales) and Cumbria (or Hen Ogledd, meaning “the old north”) were thus separated from each other.
Though attacks of the Angles and Saxons continued, the Britons did manage to regroup in the west of the island. In some cases they took advantage of the feud between some Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Thus, King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, in alliance with the pagan King Penda of Mercia (sealed by Cadwallon's marriage to Penda's sister, Alcfrith, according to later sources) attacked Northumbria, which then was ruled by St. Edwin, who had converted to Christianity. Earlier Cadwallon and St. Edwin had been friends, but after Edwin’s return to his homeland and succession to the Northumbrian throne their friendship changed into hostility. So the Britons of Gwynedd took advantage of the feuds between some Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in order to regain independence and get even with the Angles of Northumbria, their “age-old enemies”. In about 630, the joint armies of Gwynedd and Mercia defeated the Northumbrians in the Battle of Cefn Digoll (near present-day Welshpool). But the Battle of Hatfield Chase that took place on October 12 (some give October 14), 633, was a significant turning point in the struggle between the Britons and the Anglo-Saxons.
According to St. Bede: “A great battle being fought in the plain that is called Heathfield, Edwin was killed on the 12th of October, in the year of our Lord 633, being then forty-seven years of age, and all his army was either slain or dispersed. In the same war also, before him, fell Osfrid, one of his sons, a warlike youth.”7 Thereupon, according to St. Bede, though he may have exaggerated as he was very much biased against the Britons, “a great slaughter was made in the church or nation of the Northumbrians; and the more so because one of the commanders, by whom it was made, was a pagan, and the other a barbarian, more cruel than a pagan; for Penda, with all the nation of the Mercians, was an idolater, and a stranger to the name of Christ; but Cadwallon, though he bore the name and professed himself a Christian, was so barbarous in his disposition and behavior, that he neither spared the female sex, nor the innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put them to tormenting deaths, ravaging all their country for a long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain.”8 However, before that time it was the Angles and Saxons that had been slaughtering the Celtic Britons living in Britain for a long time, literally striving to exterminate them. Therefore, by cruelly murdering inhabitants of Northumbria the Britons were trying to wreak vengeance on their oppressors. This hostility was largely explained by the fact that the Angles and Saxons on converting to Christianity regarded the native Britons as “heretics” on account of their controversy over the proper calculation of Pascha, whereas, according to St. Bede, “it being to this day the custom of the Britons not to pay any respect to the faith and religion of the English, nor to correspond with them any more than with pagans.”9
Soon after that, Cadwallon fell in battle with the army of Angles under St. Oswald. On returning from Dalriada where he had been in exile, St. Oswald with his small army attacked King Cadwallon’s band at Cad-ys-Gual (“Heavenfield” in English). The battle resulted in a decisive victory for St. Oswald, and Cadwallon was defeated and killed. Now the territories that Gwynedd had won back from Northumbria were lost. Thenceforth Mercia (with which it had allied not long before) not Northumbria posed a major threat to the kingdom of Gwynedd.
In 634, following the mentioned battle, the throne of Gwynedd was seized by Cadfael ap Cynfeddw (that is, “Cadfael, son of Cynfeddw), while Cadwallon’s one-year-old son St. Cadwaladr Fendigaid was hidden for a time. About 655, St. Cadwaladr at last ascended the throne of Gwynedd. He was loved as a pious, peaceful ruler, and before his death he took monastic vows. St. Cadwaladr died during the devastating plague of 664 [although, according to the majority of sources, this saint died of another terrible plague that swept the country eighteen years later, in 682.—Trans.) and was canonized after his death.
The period between the fifth and the eighth centuries was called “the age of saints” in Wales. The most venerated saint of the Welsh land is its patron saint—St. David, Archbishop of Mynyw (Menevia). His feast day, March 1 (he is venerated in Orthodoxy on March 14), is still a national holiday in Wales. He was a champion of the Orthodox faith, a missionary, founder of a large number of monasteries in different parts of Britain and even in Brittany. His principal monastery of Mynyw (now St. Davids in Pembrokeshire) became his archbishopric as well. St. David introduced a very strict rule at his monastery. Manual labor was compulsory and always flourished there. Any conversations, except for very necessary ones, were forbidden. The brethren were not allowed to use horses or oxen in plowing, so they would always drag the plow through their fields themselves, while practicing unceasing prayer. The food of the brethren consisted of bread, vegetables and water. Meat and milk products, alcohol and even fish were excluded. St. David was often referred to as “aquaticus” (“water-man”) because he lived exclusively on bread and water. According to one version, St. David reposed in 589, and according to another version, it was in 601.
Among those who followed in St. David’s footsteps in the seventh century was St. Beuno. He was born in the kingdom of Powys and was related to the royal family. Driven by love for God and an intense desire to dedicate his life to the service of Christ, St. Beuno as a very young man joined Bangor Monastery, which had been founded by St. Deiniol. It was there that he received the tonsure and was ordained. Later he was sent to found new monasteries in the kingdom of Gwynedd. About the year 616 the saint established a monastery at Clynnog Fawr. After that, following the tradition of the Celtic saints, Beuno undertook numerous missionary journeys across Wales and some early English kingdoms. In Wales he built around ten monasteries, which became seedbeds of holy monks and ascetics in the Celtic tradition. Among the monastic communities established by this saint of God were those at Llanfeuno and Llanymynech. “Ancient traditions say that St. Beuno, as a wandering preacher, used to pay visits to the monastic islands in Wales at Bardsey and Anglesey. On Anglesey he may have founded a church, or, most likely, a monastery, in a place called Aberffraw… St. Beuno for some time led a solitary ascetic life in Somerset in southwest England, where a tiny and lovely church in Culbone—which stands to this day—served as his a cell. This is the smallest active parish church in all England. It is dedicated to St. Beuno… Culbone church is located in a very quiet and remote place right beside the Bristol Channel, surrounded by forest… This is a typical setting for the ancient Celtic saints.”10 The Venerable Beuno reposed about 640 at his monastery of Clynnog Fawr and was interred there. A great number of miracles occurred at his holy relics. The saint became a special patron of sick children. Veneration for St. Beuno was so strong that it continued after the disastrous Reformation, when the veneration of saints was officially prohibited all over Britain. Thus, even in the Protestant Wales, “children who suffered from many diseases were brought and led to the holy well, bathed in it and left for a night inside the chapel on the grave or near the grave of the holy man Beuno; and many of them were miraculously cured.”11
St. Winifred, St. Beuno’s niece, had an Anglo-Saxon name and was probably of mixed origin. In her youth the saint wished to become a nun and took monastic vows. Little reliable information about her life survives, but, according to the most popular tradition, one Welsh prince was stricken with the desire to have her in marriage. Since the saint was determined to preserve her virginity and lead a monastic life, the prince decided to take her by force. Winifred refused his advances, and he struck off her head on the spot. A healing spring gushed forth where her head had fallen. That place was called Trefynnon in Welsh and Holywell in English. According to tradition, through the prayers of St. Beuno his holy niece came back to life. Winefred then returned to Gwytherin (where she had taken the veil), established a convent there, and became its abbess. The holy maiden reposed in about 660. In time her holy relics were translated to Shrewsbury Abbey (now in county Shropshire, western England), where countless miracles occurred through her intercessions. Both Shrewsbury Abbey and the holy well at Trefynnon remained great pilgrimage centers throughout the middle ages.
Another celebrated saint of seventh century Wales is the Venerable Melangell. Born in Ireland, she sailed to Wales where she lived as an anchoress in solitude amid dense forests of Powys for fifteen years. One day King Brochwel Ysgithrog during a hunting trip came upon a clearing in which a beautiful maiden was standing deep in prayer. According to the Life of St. Melangell, “a hare that was being pursued by the hounds was lying beside the holy woman and facing the dogs down boldly. The hounds submissively ran aside and stopped, unable to move.”12 Amazed by the piety of the anchoress, Brochwel donated a parcel of land to be used by her to found a convent. In due course the maiden of God founded a community of nuns, became its first abbess, and ruled it until her death.
Another notable figure of “the age of saints” in Wales is St. Tysilio, a son of the aforementioned King Brochwel, to whom the Welsh chronicle of kings is also attributed. As a very young man Prince Tysilio went to study at the monastery of Meifod, where his spiritual mentor was the holy hermit and abbot Gwydfarch. After that, Tysilio lived for seven years on an islet near the Island of Anglesey in the Menai Straits (a channel separating Anglesey from the mainland of NW Wales). This isle was later called Ynys Dysilio (“St. Tysilio’s Island”) after him. On his return to Meifod, St. Tysilio became its abbot and afterwards established a number of other monasteries in various parts of Wales—for example, in Clwyd, Cardiganshire, and Dyfed.
However, the man of God could not avoid temptation. When St. Tysilio’s brother died, his widow wished to marry him and make him the King of Powys. The holy man turned down both proposals, and so for political reasons soon Meifod Monastery was persecuted by the royal family. Then St. Tysilio resolved to leave his homeland. Thus, taking a small group of monks with him, the saint embarked for Brittany, where he eventually founded the monastery of St. Suliac in 617 and became its first abbot. St. Tysilio reposed at St. Suliac in about 640.13
Witnesses to the Church life and ascetic labors of a cloud of saints in Wales during its period of independence are the surviving ruins of early churches, church enclosures and monastic cells, ancient cemeteries with early gravestones, stones with ogham and Latin inscriptions (which had been erected at crossroads and later remained in their locations or moved to museums), and holy wells that have been venerated by pious people since time immemorial. The Church structure, liturgical rites, specifics of piety, Christian customs and everyday traditions of Wales had much in common with those of another Celtic country—namely, Ireland. And in many ways, all of them made this far western corner of the Christian world very close to the Christian East.
Source: Pravoslavie.ru — Translated by Dmitry Lapa
This website is how the Gleason family and the Silva family earn a living. Maintaining this website is a full time job, and this is how they feed their families. Both families now live in Russia, and they appreciate your support.
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The Church structure, liturgical rites, specifics of piety, Christian customs and everyday traditions of Wales . . . made this far western corner of the Christian world very close to the Christian East
In the seventh century A.D., the population of Britain consisted mainly of two ethnic groups relatively equal in number, collectively known as the Celts and the Anglo-Saxons respectively. The Celts can be divided into three major sub-groups, namely the Welsh (the descendants of the Britons—the native inhabitants of Britain who were driven west by the invading Angles and Saxons) in Wales; the Picts (an indigenous tribal confederation of peoples in Scotland); and the Fenians, or Scots (a Gaelic people that migrated from Ireland to Scotland around the late fifth century)—this is how they were commonly called in Britain (“Scotti”, meaning “wanderers”, referred to the Irish in general). The name “Scotland” derives from the Latin “Scotia”—“the land of the Scots”. This is because in the middle ages, Scotland as a country was developed by the Scots rather than the native Picts.
In the fifth century the Fenians changed their name and began to be called Gaels; they founded the kingdom of Dalriada (also spelled Dal Riata) north of the Antonine Wall, the territory of which extended to northeastern Ireland(Ulster) and groups of small islands between Britain and Ireland. By the beginning of the seventh century Dalriada had become an overwhelmingly Christian state, and the Irish Celtic rites were established in it. The liturgical traditions and practices of the Celtic Church were slightly different from those of the Roman Church. Their main theological dispute of that time was the controversy over the correct date for Pascha (the “Roman party” in Britain was represented by disciples of St. Augustine of Canterbury, the Roman enlightener of the Anglo-Saxons). The greatest and more significant ecclesiological and canonical difference was the Church administration. In Celtic Christianity all authority belonged to abbots of monasteries, while bishops had no administrative power—they lived at the monasteries, obeyed their abbots, and performed their sacramental functions, including ordinations.
The founders of monasteries in Ireland and Dalriada were held in great honor, and thus the abbots were often referred to as “comarbae” (meaning “heirs”, “successors” in Old Irish). Every abbot of Iona in Scotland was called “comarba Colum Cille” (“successor of Columba”), and every abbot of Armagh was called “comarba Patraic” (“successor of Patrick”). In the second half of the seventh century, the most influential abbot in Dalriada, Ireland and even Northumbria in northern England was St. Adomnan, the ninth successor of St. Columba and the author of the most famous version of his (Columba’s) Life. In 688, under the influence of Northumbrian monks, St. Adomnan introduced the Roman paschalia in the churches of Dalriada, though the brethren of Iona refused to adopt it.
The largest ethnic group in Caledonia (the Roman name for Scotland) were the Picts. They inhabited most of its territory, and by the beginning of the seventh century the majority of them had become Christians. They converted to Christianity mainly thanks to the apostolic labors of St. Columba, who made numerous missionary journeys to their land in the second half of the sixth century. At the turn of the sixth century, Pictland already had a number of monasteries founded by St. Columba and his disciples, although most of the settlements where they were situated cannot be identified today. However, we have no information about the bishops who were sent to serve in Pictland, so we presume that the Church throughout the kingdom was administrated from by the abbots of Iona, where bishops actually lived.
The liturgical traditions of the Church of Pictland were identical to those of the Churches in Ireland and Dalriada. But in 663/664, the famous Synod of Whitby was summoned in Northumbria, gathering the proponents of both the Celtic and the Roman customs. At the Synod, St. Colman of Lindisfarne supported the “Celtic party”, while St. Wilfrid of York and Hexham supported the “Roman party” with its paschalia. After a dispute between Sts. Colman and Wilfrid, the Roman party ultimately won the day. After St. Wilfrid’s consecration as bishop of Eboracum (York), the churches of South Pictland, at that time occupied by Northumbrians, were under his jurisdiction for several years. At that time they used the Roman paschalia to celebrate the Resurrection of Christ.
In 681, the new Diocese of Abercorn was established in South Pictland, close to the south coast of the Firth of Forth, to provide spiritual guidance to the local population. St. Trumwine was consecrated the first bishop of Abercorn. He made efforts to introduce the Roman paschalia and other practices in all the parishes of his bishopric, but after Northumbria’s defeat in the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685, St. Trumwine “withdrew with his people who were in the monastery of Abercurnig [Abercorn], seated in the country of the English, but close by the arm of the sea which parts the lands of the English and the Scots. Having recommended his followers, wheresoever he could, to his friends in the monasteries, he chose his own place of residence in the monastery, which we have so often mentioned, of men and women servants of God, at Streaneshalch [Whitby].”1 He reposed there many years later, unable to give spiritual guidance to the Church of Pictland, which, therefore, reverted to its Celtic practices and upheld them for a quarter of a century after him.
The most numerous Celtic people in seventh century Britain were the Britons, or Cymry, who were brutally massacred in great numbers by the invading Angles and Saxons and pushed from their native lands. Resisting the aggression, the Celtic tribes remained safe in the west from Anglo-Saxon domination and formed small British kingdoms in Cornwall (Dumnonia), Wales (originally called Cymru, or Cambria) and Strathclyde (or Cumbria), which stretched to the southwest of Scotland. Though a distinct entity, Wales (the largest of these) was not a monolithic state. It was divided into several small independent kingdoms which acted in alliance with each other. Among them were Gwynedd (NW Wales), Dyfed (SW Wales), and Powys (E Wales).
The seventh century, like the previous sixth century, was marked by the Celtic Britons’ stout resistance to the Anglo-Saxons’ steady onslaught. They experienced both victories and defeats in this struggle. Yet one of the battles proved fatal for Cambria. It was the Battle of Legacastir [the Roman name of present-day Chester] which took place in about 616. In it the joint army of Powys and several smaller allied kingdoms fought against the Northumbrians. However, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dates this battle to 604. The Chronicle’s entry for 607 reads: “Ethelfrith led his army to Legacastir; where he slew an innumerable host of the Welsh; and so was fulfilled the prophecy of St. Augustine, wherein he saith ‘If the Welsh will not have peace with us, they shall perish at the hands of the Saxons.’”2
St. Bede of Jarrow, giving his account of the Battle of Legacastir, refers to the British soldiers and priests who came with them as “heretics” only because of their way of calculating the date of Pascha and other minor liturgical differences: “Their priests … came together to offer up their prayers to God for the soldiers, standing apart in a place of more safety. Most of them were of the monastery of Bangor, in which, it is reported, there was so great a number of monks, that the monastery being divided into seven parts, with a ruler over each, none of those parts contained less than three hundred men, who all lived by the labor of their hands. Many of these, having observed a fast of three days, resorted among others to pray at the aforesaid battle, having one Brocmail appointed for their protector, to defend them whilst they were intent upon their prayers, against the swords of the barbarians. King Ethelfrith being informed of the occasion of their coming, said, ‘If then they cry to their God against us, in truth, though they do not bear arms, yet they fight against us, because they oppose us by their prayers.’”3
Thus, in modern legal language, the King of Northumbria refused to recognize these priests as noncombatants. We read further: “He, therefore, commanded them to be attacked first, and then destroyed the rest of the impious army, not without considerable loss of his own.”4
Here St. Bede’s Anglo-Saxon patriotism and religious intolerance go over the top… For him the “impious army” was not the horde of the pagan Angles but the army of the Christian Britons, though the only major difference between the Celtic and the Roman traditions (St. Bede belonged to the latter) was in the way the two Churches calculated the date of Pascha and tonsured monks. “About twelve hundred of those that came to pray are said to have been killed, and only fifty to have escaped by flight. Brocmail turning his back with his men, at the first approach of the enemy, left those whom he ought to have defended, unarmed and exposed to the swords of the enemies.”5 And St. Bede concludes that account, gloating over their defeat: “Those perfidious men… had despised the offer of eternal salvation.”6 Interestingly, elsewhere in his wonderful book St. Bede displays a much more tolerant attitude towards other Celts, namely the Scots (the Irish) and the Picts. Perhaps he felt a personal antipathy to the Britons about which we know nothing. By the way, the Angles and Saxons contemptuously called the Britons “the Welsh”, meaning simply “foreigners” [though, in effect, they themselves were foreigners! Hence “Wales” means “the land of the foreigners”, and “Cornwall”, originally “Corn-Wales”, means “the horn”, or “promontory, inhabited by the foreigners.”—Trans.]. The victory in the Battle of Legacastir gave Northumbria easy access to the Irish Sea and so the Celtic world of Britain was then largely disintegrated: Cambria (Wales) and Cumbria (or Hen Ogledd, meaning “the old north”) were thus separated from each other.
Though attacks of the Angles and Saxons continued, the Britons did manage to regroup in the west of the island. In some cases they took advantage of the feud between some Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Thus, King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, in alliance with the pagan King Penda of Mercia (sealed by Cadwallon's marriage to Penda's sister, Alcfrith, according to later sources) attacked Northumbria, which then was ruled by St. Edwin, who had converted to Christianity. Earlier Cadwallon and St. Edwin had been friends, but after Edwin’s return to his homeland and succession to the Northumbrian throne their friendship changed into hostility. So the Britons of Gwynedd took advantage of the feuds between some Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in order to regain independence and get even with the Angles of Northumbria, their “age-old enemies”. In about 630, the joint armies of Gwynedd and Mercia defeated the Northumbrians in the Battle of Cefn Digoll (near present-day Welshpool). But the Battle of Hatfield Chase that took place on October 12 (some give October 14), 633, was a significant turning point in the struggle between the Britons and the Anglo-Saxons.
According to St. Bede: “A great battle being fought in the plain that is called Heathfield, Edwin was killed on the 12th of October, in the year of our Lord 633, being then forty-seven years of age, and all his army was either slain or dispersed. In the same war also, before him, fell Osfrid, one of his sons, a warlike youth.”7 Thereupon, according to St. Bede, though he may have exaggerated as he was very much biased against the Britons, “a great slaughter was made in the church or nation of the Northumbrians; and the more so because one of the commanders, by whom it was made, was a pagan, and the other a barbarian, more cruel than a pagan; for Penda, with all the nation of the Mercians, was an idolater, and a stranger to the name of Christ; but Cadwallon, though he bore the name and professed himself a Christian, was so barbarous in his disposition and behavior, that he neither spared the female sex, nor the innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put them to tormenting deaths, ravaging all their country for a long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain.”8 However, before that time it was the Angles and Saxons that had been slaughtering the Celtic Britons living in Britain for a long time, literally striving to exterminate them. Therefore, by cruelly murdering inhabitants of Northumbria the Britons were trying to wreak vengeance on their oppressors. This hostility was largely explained by the fact that the Angles and Saxons on converting to Christianity regarded the native Britons as “heretics” on account of their controversy over the proper calculation of Pascha, whereas, according to St. Bede, “it being to this day the custom of the Britons not to pay any respect to the faith and religion of the English, nor to correspond with them any more than with pagans.”9
Soon after that, Cadwallon fell in battle with the army of Angles under St. Oswald. On returning from Dalriada where he had been in exile, St. Oswald with his small army attacked King Cadwallon’s band at Cad-ys-Gual (“Heavenfield” in English). The battle resulted in a decisive victory for St. Oswald, and Cadwallon was defeated and killed. Now the territories that Gwynedd had won back from Northumbria were lost. Thenceforth Mercia (with which it had allied not long before) not Northumbria posed a major threat to the kingdom of Gwynedd.
In 634, following the mentioned battle, the throne of Gwynedd was seized by Cadfael ap Cynfeddw (that is, “Cadfael, son of Cynfeddw), while Cadwallon’s one-year-old son St. Cadwaladr Fendigaid was hidden for a time. About 655, St. Cadwaladr at last ascended the throne of Gwynedd. He was loved as a pious, peaceful ruler, and before his death he took monastic vows. St. Cadwaladr died during the devastating plague of 664 [although, according to the majority of sources, this saint died of another terrible plague that swept the country eighteen years later, in 682.—Trans.) and was canonized after his death.
The period between the fifth and the eighth centuries was called “the age of saints” in Wales. The most venerated saint of the Welsh land is its patron saint—St. David, Archbishop of Mynyw (Menevia). His feast day, March 1 (he is venerated in Orthodoxy on March 14), is still a national holiday in Wales. He was a champion of the Orthodox faith, a missionary, founder of a large number of monasteries in different parts of Britain and even in Brittany. His principal monastery of Mynyw (now St. Davids in Pembrokeshire) became his archbishopric as well. St. David introduced a very strict rule at his monastery. Manual labor was compulsory and always flourished there. Any conversations, except for very necessary ones, were forbidden. The brethren were not allowed to use horses or oxen in plowing, so they would always drag the plow through their fields themselves, while practicing unceasing prayer. The food of the brethren consisted of bread, vegetables and water. Meat and milk products, alcohol and even fish were excluded. St. David was often referred to as “aquaticus” (“water-man”) because he lived exclusively on bread and water. According to one version, St. David reposed in 589, and according to another version, it was in 601.
Among those who followed in St. David’s footsteps in the seventh century was St. Beuno. He was born in the kingdom of Powys and was related to the royal family. Driven by love for God and an intense desire to dedicate his life to the service of Christ, St. Beuno as a very young man joined Bangor Monastery, which had been founded by St. Deiniol. It was there that he received the tonsure and was ordained. Later he was sent to found new monasteries in the kingdom of Gwynedd. About the year 616 the saint established a monastery at Clynnog Fawr. After that, following the tradition of the Celtic saints, Beuno undertook numerous missionary journeys across Wales and some early English kingdoms. In Wales he built around ten monasteries, which became seedbeds of holy monks and ascetics in the Celtic tradition. Among the monastic communities established by this saint of God were those at Llanfeuno and Llanymynech. “Ancient traditions say that St. Beuno, as a wandering preacher, used to pay visits to the monastic islands in Wales at Bardsey and Anglesey. On Anglesey he may have founded a church, or, most likely, a monastery, in a place called Aberffraw… St. Beuno for some time led a solitary ascetic life in Somerset in southwest England, where a tiny and lovely church in Culbone—which stands to this day—served as his a cell. This is the smallest active parish church in all England. It is dedicated to St. Beuno… Culbone church is located in a very quiet and remote place right beside the Bristol Channel, surrounded by forest… This is a typical setting for the ancient Celtic saints.”10 The Venerable Beuno reposed about 640 at his monastery of Clynnog Fawr and was interred there. A great number of miracles occurred at his holy relics. The saint became a special patron of sick children. Veneration for St. Beuno was so strong that it continued after the disastrous Reformation, when the veneration of saints was officially prohibited all over Britain. Thus, even in the Protestant Wales, “children who suffered from many diseases were brought and led to the holy well, bathed in it and left for a night inside the chapel on the grave or near the grave of the holy man Beuno; and many of them were miraculously cured.”11
St. Winifred, St. Beuno’s niece, had an Anglo-Saxon name and was probably of mixed origin. In her youth the saint wished to become a nun and took monastic vows. Little reliable information about her life survives, but, according to the most popular tradition, one Welsh prince was stricken with the desire to have her in marriage. Since the saint was determined to preserve her virginity and lead a monastic life, the prince decided to take her by force. Winifred refused his advances, and he struck off her head on the spot. A healing spring gushed forth where her head had fallen. That place was called Trefynnon in Welsh and Holywell in English. According to tradition, through the prayers of St. Beuno his holy niece came back to life. Winefred then returned to Gwytherin (where she had taken the veil), established a convent there, and became its abbess. The holy maiden reposed in about 660. In time her holy relics were translated to Shrewsbury Abbey (now in county Shropshire, western England), where countless miracles occurred through her intercessions. Both Shrewsbury Abbey and the holy well at Trefynnon remained great pilgrimage centers throughout the middle ages.
Another celebrated saint of seventh century Wales is the Venerable Melangell. Born in Ireland, she sailed to Wales where she lived as an anchoress in solitude amid dense forests of Powys for fifteen years. One day King Brochwel Ysgithrog during a hunting trip came upon a clearing in which a beautiful maiden was standing deep in prayer. According to the Life of St. Melangell, “a hare that was being pursued by the hounds was lying beside the holy woman and facing the dogs down boldly. The hounds submissively ran aside and stopped, unable to move.”12 Amazed by the piety of the anchoress, Brochwel donated a parcel of land to be used by her to found a convent. In due course the maiden of God founded a community of nuns, became its first abbess, and ruled it until her death.
Another notable figure of “the age of saints” in Wales is St. Tysilio, a son of the aforementioned King Brochwel, to whom the Welsh chronicle of kings is also attributed. As a very young man Prince Tysilio went to study at the monastery of Meifod, where his spiritual mentor was the holy hermit and abbot Gwydfarch. After that, Tysilio lived for seven years on an islet near the Island of Anglesey in the Menai Straits (a channel separating Anglesey from the mainland of NW Wales). This isle was later called Ynys Dysilio (“St. Tysilio’s Island”) after him. On his return to Meifod, St. Tysilio became its abbot and afterwards established a number of other monasteries in various parts of Wales—for example, in Clwyd, Cardiganshire, and Dyfed.
However, the man of God could not avoid temptation. When St. Tysilio’s brother died, his widow wished to marry him and make him the King of Powys. The holy man turned down both proposals, and so for political reasons soon Meifod Monastery was persecuted by the royal family. Then St. Tysilio resolved to leave his homeland. Thus, taking a small group of monks with him, the saint embarked for Brittany, where he eventually founded the monastery of St. Suliac in 617 and became its first abbot. St. Tysilio reposed at St. Suliac in about 640.13
Witnesses to the Church life and ascetic labors of a cloud of saints in Wales during its period of independence are the surviving ruins of early churches, church enclosures and monastic cells, ancient cemeteries with early gravestones, stones with ogham and Latin inscriptions (which had been erected at crossroads and later remained in their locations or moved to museums), and holy wells that have been venerated by pious people since time immemorial. The Church structure, liturgical rites, specifics of piety, Christian customs and everyday traditions of Wales had much in common with those of another Celtic country—namely, Ireland. And in many ways, all of them made this far western corner of the Christian world very close to the Christian East.
Source: Pravoslavie.ru — Translated by Dmitry Lapa
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Native American Zuni Witchcraft
Like many other indigenous tribes of the United States, the Zuni believed in magic and witchcraft. For the Zuni, the belief in witchcraft goes back to their earliest times, included in Zuni creation myths. According to oral tradition, a pair of witches came up from the underworld bringing the people two gifts: death, to keep the world from becoming overcrowded, and corn, to feed the people.
Magical powers were not always differentiated as good or evil, with the people using their magical skills for a number of purposes. In fact, the concept of a witch was tied to the concepts of life and human origin, with the people believing that witches existed alongside humans, and not apart from other living beings. Thus, they were not supernatural. The Tewa believed that witches accompany people daily and are defined as those “of a different breath.” However, they had a different physical and spiritual existence, not like “common” humans. Rather, they had to live on the unexpired lives of their victims, by capturing or indoctrinating their souls. Further, they had to continually kill or perish themselves.
Because of this requirement to continually kill, witchcraft was blamed for any disaster of magnitude, like droughts, epidemic diseases, or a flood. Further, any disharmony among the people or infractions of proper behavior was also equated with witchcraft. At one point, witchcraft among the Zuni was the only recognized crime.
The Council of High Priests decided who the witches were and the Bow Priests were tasked for their executions. Because the council was supposed to be removed from any type of violence, the Bow Priests, who were associated with war, enforced their decisions. The Bow Priests were also responsible for examining the accused and reviewing the evidence. If the accused was found guilty, he was hung by the wrists and tortured until he confessed. If the accused revealed the source of his/her power, he might be released or, at least, saved from execution.
Though the Spanish, when they ruled the Southwest, tried to change the culture of the Pueblo tribes, including their belief in witchcraft, they were unsuccessful. After the Pueblo Revolt, the Spanish relaxed their restrictions on the Pueblo culture, and the belief in witchcraft continued. When the United States obtained New Mexico and other areas of the southwest, Indian agents were sent out to monitor the Indians and to once again, attempt to change their culture. Over the years, several reports were made regarding Zuni witchcraft and its punishment.
Reports indicated that in March 1855 Indians of the Nambe Pueblo in New Mexico butchered three men and one woman of their village, in a most horrible manner, for alleged witchcraft. In 1880, an Indian agent reported seeing a man who was tied up by his wrists behind his back and lifted so that his feet could not touch the ground. The Zuni said that he had brought sickness and death to some of the people. The agent reported the incident to his superiors at Santa Fe, New Mexico, who came to the Zuni to hold a council. When questioned, the Indians replied, “We have our government and laws, and what has happened is all right. We do not want you to interfere, but we want you to allow us the same privileges as you white people claim.” And they added, “ If you will tend to your own business we will tend to ours.”
Another report indicated that a Zuni Indian killed a woman of the same pueblo, believing her to be a witch and that she had caused the death of his children. In August 1889, accusations of witchcraft were agitated because of drought. It was said that someone must be keeping away the rain. A poor old man was accused and he was hung up by his wrists tied behind his back. After he confessed, they let him down. After he received more threats, the man left the pueblo and a Mexican, who took pity on him, gave him a home. The drought continued and the witch excitement spread. In October an old woman was hung up in like manner, as a witch, until she confessed. She then implicated her nephew, a boy of 16 years, a common thief. He was hung in the same way; was let down once or twice; was beaten about his head with sticks; was then hung again, remained hanging all night and all day until he died the next night. A dozen Americans saw the hanging. One gentleman tried to cut the boy down, but was forbidden to interfere and told, “none American’s business.”
In an Indian Agent report of 1892, it was recorded:
“This evil still goes on. The victims are often those who depart from the old pueblo customs and incline to the ways of civilized life. In the estimation of the ruling Zuni, what we call progress is the most criminal of offenses and must be trodden out by the most summary and vindictive tortures. While this report was waiting for the printer, early in December, two Zuni Indians with whom I talked freely last July were seized and subjected to the witch torture methods. They were probably the most progressive of any people in the pueblo. Seized, violently seized, they were strung up by their wrists, beaten with war clubs, and kept hanging all night, all the next day, and until 10 o’clock the second night. They were let down occasionally for a few moments to induce confession but suffered indescribable torture. To end the suffering, they finally confessed that they were witches; and, were let off when life was almost gone. Some perish in these tortures. I asked an intelligent gentleman, a resident in this pueblo for twelve years, “How often do these witch cases occur?” He replied :
“One nearly every year, either resulting in death or being run off from the pueblo, sometimes followed and killed. Some years more than one. Half a dozen Americans have witnessed some cases. No Zuni Indian has been brought to justice and punished for these outrages; but, now three men are arrested for the late offenses and in jail awaiting trial. They are undoubtedly not the guilty parties. The real offenders, men of influence in managing the affairs of the pueblo, turned over to the authorities these three poor men who were unable to help themselves, and expect thus to clear their own skirts.”
In 1898-99 a smallpox epidemic was blamed for witchcraft and in 1910-11, a measle epidemic was also blamed on sorcery. During the smallpox epidemic, two young men were held responsible. They would have been executed except for an American school teacher who got a detachment of soldiers to protect them. Though the “witches” were saved, some of the soldiers and their horses later died of poisoning.
The U.S. government stopped the Zuni’s public torture and execution of witches, but, some convicted witches were still killed in secret. The last public witch trials of the Zuni were in 1925; however, a belief in witchcraft remained for many years.
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Native American Zuni Witchcraft
Like many other indigenous tribes of the United States, the Zuni believed in magic and witchcraft. For the Zuni, the belief in witchcraft goes back to their earliest times, included in Zuni creation myths. According to oral tradition, a pair of witches came up from the underworld bringing the people two gifts: death, to keep the world from becoming overcrowded, and corn, to feed the people.
Magical powers were not always differentiated as good or evil, with the people using their magical skills for a number of purposes. In fact, the concept of a witch was tied to the concepts of life and human origin, with the people believing that witches existed alongside humans, and not apart from other living beings. Thus, they were not supernatural. The Tewa believed that witches accompany people daily and are defined as those “of a different breath.” However, they had a different physical and spiritual existence, not like “common” humans. Rather, they had to live on the unexpired lives of their victims, by capturing or indoctrinating their souls. Further, they had to continually kill or perish themselves.
Because of this requirement to continually kill, witchcraft was blamed for any disaster of magnitude, like droughts, epidemic diseases, or a flood. Further, any disharmony among the people or infractions of proper behavior was also equated with witchcraft. At one point, witchcraft among the Zuni was the only recognized crime.
The Council of High Priests decided who the witches were and the Bow Priests were tasked for their executions. Because the council was supposed to be removed from any type of violence, the Bow Priests, who were associated with war, enforced their decisions. The Bow Priests were also responsible for examining the accused and reviewing the evidence. If the accused was found guilty, he was hung by the wrists and tortured until he confessed. If the accused revealed the source of his/her power, he might be released or, at least, saved from execution.
Though the Spanish, when they ruled the Southwest, tried to change the culture of the Pueblo tribes, including their belief in witchcraft, they were unsuccessful. After the Pueblo Revolt, the Spanish relaxed their restrictions on the Pueblo culture, and the belief in witchcraft continued. When the United States obtained New Mexico and other areas of the southwest, Indian agents were sent out to monitor the Indians and to once again, attempt to change their culture. Over the years, several reports were made regarding Zuni witchcraft and its punishment.
Reports indicated that in March 1855 Indians of the Nambe Pueblo in New Mexico butchered three men and one woman of their village, in a most horrible manner, for alleged witchcraft. In 1880, an Indian agent reported seeing a man who was tied up by his wrists behind his back and lifted so that his feet could not touch the ground. The Zuni said that he had brought sickness and death to some of the people. The agent reported the incident to his superiors at Santa Fe, New Mexico, who came to the Zuni to hold a council. When questioned, the Indians replied, “We have our government and laws, and what has happened is all right. We do not want you to interfere, but we want you to allow us the same privileges as you white people claim.” And they added, “ If you will tend to your own business we will tend to ours.”
Another report indicated that a Zuni Indian killed a woman of the same pueblo, believing her to be a witch and that she had caused the death of his children. In August 1889, accusations of witchcraft were agitated because of drought. It was said that someone must be keeping away the rain. A poor old man was accused and he was hung up by his wrists tied behind his back. After he confessed, they let him down. After he received more threats, the man left the pueblo and a Mexican, who took pity on him, gave him a home. The drought continued and the witch excitement spread. In October an old woman was hung up in like manner, as a witch, until she confessed. She then implicated her nephew, a boy of 16 years, a common thief. He was hung in the same way; was let down once or twice; was beaten about his head with sticks; was then hung again, remained hanging all night and all day until he died the next night. A dozen Americans saw the hanging. One gentleman tried to cut the boy down, but was forbidden to interfere and told, “none American’s business.”
In an Indian Agent report of 1892, it was recorded:
“This evil still goes on. The victims are often those who depart from the old pueblo customs and incline to the ways of civilized life. In the estimation of the ruling Zuni, what we call progress is the most criminal of offenses and must be trodden out by the most summary and vindictive tortures. While this report was waiting for the printer, early in December, two Zuni Indians with whom I talked freely last July were seized and subjected to the witch torture methods. They were probably the most progressive of any people in the pueblo. Seized, violently seized, they were strung up by their wrists, beaten with war clubs, and kept hanging all night, all the next day, and until 10 o’clock the second night. They were let down occasionally for a few moments to induce confession but suffered indescribable torture. To end the suffering, they finally confessed that they were witches; and, were let off when life was almost gone. Some perish in these tortures. I asked an intelligent gentleman, a resident in this pueblo for twelve years, “How often do these witch cases occur?” He replied :
“One nearly every year, either resulting in death or being run off from the pueblo, sometimes followed and killed. Some years more than one. Half a dozen Americans have witnessed some cases. No Zuni Indian has been brought to justice and punished for these outrages; but, now three men are arrested for the late offenses and in jail awaiting trial. They are undoubtedly not the guilty parties. The real offenders, men of influence in managing the affairs of the pueblo, turned over to the authorities these three poor men who were unable to help themselves, and expect thus to clear their own skirts.”
In 1898-99 a smallpox epidemic was blamed for witchcraft and in 1910-11, a measle epidemic was also blamed on sorcery. During the smallpox epidemic, two young men were held responsible. They would have been executed except for an American school teacher who got a detachment of soldiers to protect them. Though the “witches” were saved, some of the soldiers and their horses later died of poisoning.
The U.S. government stopped the Zuni’s public torture and execution of witches, but, some convicted witches were still killed in secret. The last public witch trials of the Zuni were in 1925; however, a belief in witchcraft remained for many years.
| 1,465
|
ENGLISH
| 1
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Saint Eadbert (d.698)
for May 6
Saint Eadbert lived as a monk at Lindisfarne Abbey in Ireland. The other monks admired his deep personal holiness, vast knowledge of the Bible, and charity towards the poor. In fact, Eadbert gave the poor one-tenth of his possessions each year. He was appointed bishop of Lindisfarne, and held the position for 11 years. Even though he had many responsibilities as bishop, he still made time to make two 40-day retreats every year, when he lived meditatively as a hermit.
Saint Eadbert was known for both his intelligence and his generosity. Giving away one-tenth of his earnings to the poor set an example to other Christians of the time. It also provides us today with a good example of how we are called to be charitable towards the poor.
Dear Jesus, please help me to love you, know you, and love others as you love them.
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] | 1
|
Saint Eadbert (d.698)
for May 6
Saint Eadbert lived as a monk at Lindisfarne Abbey in Ireland. The other monks admired his deep personal holiness, vast knowledge of the Bible, and charity towards the poor. In fact, Eadbert gave the poor one-tenth of his possessions each year. He was appointed bishop of Lindisfarne, and held the position for 11 years. Even though he had many responsibilities as bishop, he still made time to make two 40-day retreats every year, when he lived meditatively as a hermit.
Saint Eadbert was known for both his intelligence and his generosity. Giving away one-tenth of his earnings to the poor set an example to other Christians of the time. It also provides us today with a good example of how we are called to be charitable towards the poor.
Dear Jesus, please help me to love you, know you, and love others as you love them.
| 206
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
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